Natural pest control is an important ecosystem service to the Australian cotton industry. The modern industry has reduced it's reliance on pesticide sprays using a combination of approaches and is much more environmentally aware than it is has been in the past. Techniques employed to reduce reliance on pesticides include the introduction of BT cotton, development of soft, pest-specific chemicals and encouraging or releasing beneficial (predatory) invertebrates into crops.To date, the focus of natural pest control in the Australian cotton industry has been on managing beneficial invertebrate numbers in crops. However, work by Nancy Schellhorn's group (CSIRO), Allan House's group (CSIRO) and Geoff Gurr's group (Charles Sturt University) is showing that the wider landscape can have an important influence on the abundance of pest and beneficial invertebrate species in crop. Some attention has been paid to the value of microbats in providing natural pest control services (i.e. Leah MacKinnon's Masters research and various projects by Martin Dillon et al.), but little attention has been payed to birds and the role they may play. In addition, there is little information on where in the cotton landscape birds and microbats reside, or the effect that the proportion of different land cover types at a landscape scale can have on populations of these natural pest controlling organisms. Momentum is now growing around on-farm biodiversity conservation as research continues to show the importance of biodiversity and ecosystem services to cotton growers. This new interest has been helped by pioneering growers such as Andrew Watson who have significantly decreased their use of pesticide sprays by managing their native vegetation, without a significant impact on their bottom line. However, many growers are currently unaware of the potential value of their on-farm native vegetation for natural pest control, and those that are aware, may lack the knowledge or skills to determine the condition of and manage it appropriately. Tools are required to allow growers to benchmark their current situation and inform management to maximise natural pest control services.

This report outlines the products used on cotton crops in Australia over the 2005/2006season. The data presented in this report are drawn from surveys undertaken for CottonConsultants Australia Inc (CCA) from 1993/94 to 2005/2006. In conjunction with the CCA (Jon-Maree Baker, Executive Officer), IRF Cotton Research is responsible for the administration of the survey and for the quality of the survey data. The CCA survey committee assists with quality assurance. Responsibility for the manipulation of data and tabulation resides with IRF Cotton Research.

The overall objective of &quote;The Economics of BMP in Cotton&quote; project was to develop, adapt and promote economic analysis which supports the adoption of industry research outcomes relevant to cotton farming systems, which was successfully achieved through work conducted on the economics of cotton production, including the development of economic tools and databases and assisting research and extension staff.

The Australian cotton industry occupies a niche market in optimal fibre quality, but this must be constantly developed in order to “stay ahead”. Biotechnology provides an opportunity to continually improve fibre quality at lower cost and time, and in a more targeted way, than conventional plant breeding. Genetic improvement of cotton fibre morphology requires both useful genes and appropriate expression of the genes in cotton fibres. Previous CRDC-funded research in our laboratory has aimed to address both these requisites, concentrating on genes which are expressed in fibres but not in other cotton tissues.

We have identified six different controlling regions, or promoters, within cotton DNA which directly control the fibre-specificity and timing of expression of genes. Fibre-specific promoters allow the expression of any particular transgene to be targeted to the fibres only, avoiding any detrimental effects of expression on growth and morphology elsewhere within the plant. Each of the six promoters was fused to a reporter gene, GUS, and used to transform whole cotton plants. A large number of transgenic lines were recovered. Quantitative GUS assays were carried out the tissues of one transgenic line, showing that the reporter gene was strongly expressed in fibres only and that expression peaked during the elongation phase of growth.

One gene which is only expressed in cotton fibres encodes an interesting protein called an expansin. Expansins are thought to control plant cell growth by chemically modifying components of the cell wall, chiefly cellulose. As cellulose comprises such a large percentage of the cotton fibre, it could be that expansin proteins play a critical role in determination of fibre quality parameters such as length. Four genetic constructs were made, in which the expansin gene was placed under the control of four different cotton promoters, designed to alter normal expansin expression. The gene constructs were used to transform whole cotton plants and a large number of transformed lines were recovered. Ten lines have been screened for homozygousity and sent to the ACRI where the effects of the transgene on fibre properties such as length, strength and micronaire will be tested.

Results from this research will contribute valuable information on the role of the expansin gene in cotton fibre development, as well as providing novel germplasm for use in cotton breeding programs. In addition, it will provide a valuable bank of molecular tools which would allow expression of any gene in a defined manner in cotton fibre cells. Such tools could be used in other research aimed at producing fibres with improved or innovative properties.

Advancing Water Management in NSW was initiated by industry and government in recognition of the importance of investing in a highly effective extension team to assist the cotton industry improve water use efficiency. In 2006 NSW Department of Primary Industries and its team of experienced cotton irrigation extension officers received funds from the Cotton Research Development Corporation, Cotton Catchment Communities Cooperative Research Centre, and both the Namoi and Border Rivers Gwydir Catchment Management Authorities to undertake intensive water use efficiency extension in NSW cotton growing valleys.

The adoption of water management technology and irrigation best management practices are key drivers in generating greater water use efficiency. In order to stimulate adoption and initiate practice change a multitude of extension techniques were utilised. These included:

• Delivery of irrigation training

• Technology demonstration

• Dissemination of fact sheets and case studies

• Consultant support

• Water use efficiency benchmarking

• Dissemination on cost benefit analyses

The Irrigated Cotton and Grains Workshop Series and the Centre Pivot Lateral Move training courses were delivered to 250 cotton and grains growers. There is documented evidence that the training resulted in growers having a greater knowledge and understanding of irrigation best practice, and has lead to genuine practice change. Increased adoption of technology, better water management techniques, and investment in new infrastructure has improved whole farm water use efficiencies.

The irrigation training led to many growers applying for water use efficiency incentives available from Catchment Management Authorities. The increased knowledge, awareness, skills and attitudes acquired at the training workshops allowed growers to recognise strengths and weaknesses in their water management practices. Training also helped growers identify where investment would lead to the greatest increase in whole farm water use efficiency. Border Rivers Gwydir CMA assessed approximately 80 water use efficiency incentive applications. 66 applicants successfully secured funding for a variety of on-farm WUE activities, including the purchase and/or upgrade of soil moisture probes, storage surveys, field and storage EM surveys, storage deepening or reconfiguration, supply and tail water system upgrades. Similarly the Namoi CMA and CCCCRC granted funds to 9 applicants resulting in excess of 5111Ha coming under best practice water management.

A second outcome from the irrigation training was an increase in awareness of the Cotton BMP program. Each of the Irrigated Cotton and Grains workshops has specific linkages to the Cotton BMP Land and Water Module. Growers were encouraged to consider the advantages of obtaining formal recognition of their best practice. Between October 2006 and July 2008 Cotton Australia conducted a total of 35 and 20 Land and Water Pre-Certification Audits (PCA) in the Namoi and Gwydir Valleys respectively. Based on these PCA numbers, in the Namoi the Advancing Water Management project contributed to an additional 13,614 ha being managed and irrigated according to best practice.

Technology demonstration of Irrimate™ hardware and WaterTrack™ Optimiser software were initiated to showcase how decision support tools could assist growers to manage and measure water more efficiently. Knowledge and awareness of surface irrigation performance evaluation particularly has increased and practice change is now being documented within the cotton industry. Many growers have begun to reconfigure fields to minimise losses, shorten irrigation times, and optimise field application efficiencies. The demonstration of the WaterTrack™ software and storage seepage/evaporation meters also increased awareness of the magnitude of storage losses currently being experienced on irrigation farms. A growing number of irrigators are now either raising storage bank heights or consolidating water storage to minimise evaporative losses.

In an effort to stimulate adoption of current industry standards for recording water use efficiency, project staff conducted personal interviews on 42 farms from Emerald in central Queensland to Hillston in southern NSW to establish current WUE benchmarks for the cotton industry.

Benchmarking facilitates continuous improvement in management and water use. The results revealed that the average WUE for the 2006-07 season was 1.31 bales/ML (water pumped) or 1.13bales/ML (including stored soil moisture and effective rainfall). The results also highlighted that the top 20% of growers achieved a WUE around 1.5bales/ML. A paper was presented at the 2008 Australian Cotton Conference, and based on the response from industry, the benchmarking study and information generated has been very well received.

In an effort to increase both growers’ and industry’s awareness and knowledge of the financial benefits of investing in technology adoption and practice change, a number of economic case studies were produced with the assistance of a NSWDPI economist. Economic articles were posted on the irrigated cotton and grains website and published in the Australian Cotton Grower magazine. Materials were also distributed at irrigation training workshops and at various farm walks and field days.

In 2003 the Whole Farm Salinity Management Strategies for Cotton Production in the Macquarie Valley, CRDC Project Number: CRC 51C established five long term monitoring sites in the Lower Macquarie Valley. These sites are allowing the long term monitoring of deep drainage and changes to the salt store in the major irrigated cotton growing soils. In 2006 and 2007 members of the Advancing Water Management Project team collected and tested soil samples at these monitoring sites to build a long term picture of potential soil degradation and productivity decline due to poor water quality and irrigation management. An examination of the 2007 soil and water analyses suggest that sodium and chloride concentrations increase during the irrigation season but decrease during the winter (non-irrigation season). Presumably this is due to leaching of the salts out of the crop root zone with winter rainfall. In time, it is likely that they will move into groundwater reserves. However, there is considerable variation among locations due to variation in soils (texture, ESP etc.) and cropping systems. A technical paper will be published and presented at an industry forum in 2009.

A project investigating the molecular and histological effects of silicon application on cotton infected with Fov was inspired by promising preliminary results obtained by Dr Linda Smith (QPl&F) in glasshouse and field trials. Silicon application has been demonstrated to effectively ameliorate or reduce the symptoms of disease caused by fungal pathogens in many plant-pathogen interactions, including those involving host species such as rice, cucumber and wheat. The mechanisms of resistance attributed to silicon treatment include the creation of a physical barrier to pathogen penetration, and the induction of defence responses associated with the increased production of defence related compounds and alterations in defence gene expression. The feasibility of applying silicon to reduce incidence or severity of Fusarium wilt in cotton was investigated utilising two forms of silicon and two cotton cultivars with different resistances to Fov. The following defence responses were assessed with and without silicon treatment:

a. Disease severity and incidence, effect of silicon on nutrient acquisition

b. Histological defence reactions including the accumulation of phenolic compounds and lignin

c. Defence gene changes

d. Defence enzyme activity

As Bion has recently been registered for use by the Australian cotton industry, an additional aim of the project was to ascertain the effects of this chemical resistance inducing agent on cotton infected with Fov. Bion is applied to cotton seed as a seed treatment for the control of both Fusarium wilt and black root rot, whilst it is also commonly applied as a foliar spray to induce defence responses in other plant species. The aim of this research was to determine if defence responses in Fusarium wilt infected cotton, including defence gene expression changes and changes in the activities of defence related enzymes, were affected by Bion treatment; and to determine if these responses were more pronounced following Bion application in the form of a seed treatment or a foliar spray.

The Australian cotton industry has had in place since 1997 a voluntary environmental

management system – its Best Management Practice (BMP) Program – that has successfully

overcome the limitations of a purely regulatory approach to natural resource management. The

BMP Program focuses on the management of pesticides and petrochemicals, soil and water, and

native vegetation.

The industry is looking to build on the success of the BMP Program, and is in the process of

negotiating for it to provide an alternative means for cotton farmers to comply with any existing or

new regulations governing how land and water is managed in Queensland.

Reviews of the BMP Program and of its outcomes highlight that it has led to a decline in

pesticides used on cotton farms, a decline in pesticides found in riverine environments, improved

stormwater management, improved farm management and a reduction in the regulatory burden

on cotton farmers.

This paper will outline the structure of the cotton industry’s BMP Program, highlighting the factors

that have been critical to its success, including a detailed discussion on the rationale behind the

partnership approach, between the industry and regulators, seen as necessary to achieve onground

change. The paper will then touch on the benefits the Australian cotton industry sees in

working with the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) on its ‘Better Cotton’ initiative.

The objective of purchasing a Nikon stereo microscope was to improve the capability of identifying

pathogens of cotton. More than 40 samples for diagnosis have been received at the Ecosciences

Precinct laboratory since mid November 2013. The ability to identify pathogens of cotton from

diagnostic samples has been greatly improved due to the magnification range of this instrument (5X–

378X) and ability to attach a camera to photograph pathogen structures such as the various types of

spores produced for use as reference material. Pathogens identified include Fusarium oxysporum f. sp.

vasinfectum, Verticillium dahliae, Alternaria macrospora and Thielaviopsis basicola.

There is also a need for new equipment to successfully identify pathogens of cotton from samples

received from researchers, consultants and growers for general diagnostic enquiries.

Deep drainage is essential for the removal of salts from the reach of crop root systems. The disadvantages are less water which could be used by the crop and the removal of essential nutrients transported the draining water. There are also concerns for the movement of salts and nutrients into groundwater. Shallow water tables that were reported by Willis et. al. (1997) are examples of excessive deep drainage and illustrate the dangers of irrigation on lighter soils.

The performance of the first generation of transgenic (INGARD) plants released in Australia since 1996 was disappointing at a commercial level, despite the considerable reduction in pesticide usage required to grow the crop. This was primarily because of the variable performance of the plants in insect control, either across farms, or at different times of the season. A decline in efficacy had previously been noted at the end of the season, but many cases of serious decline in insect control have been reported much earlier, requiring immediate spraying to control insect outbreaks. This decline in expression appears to be a consequence of the decrease in the activity of the 35S promoter driving the INGARD gene probably in response to either environmental or physiological influences on the plant. These problems cannot be corrected in the short-term using gene technology and we must rely on our breeders to select for individual plants that show more robust expression from the promoter driving INGARD. Monsanto has been able to resolve some of the problems with INGARD in their second generation Bollgard II cotton with higher levels of expression of the Cry2Ab gene. In the longer-term, for new biotech products, we can try to find better promoters that will express throughout the season or that at least are stronger during the period when the INGARD gene starts to decline. New gene constructs could then be developed that will either complement the existing genes or replace them and the same promoters could be used in conjunction with a number of other genes in the biotechnology pipeline. Using new genomic technologies we have identified a couple of possible promoters that might show the desired pattern of expression throughout the season, but they need to be fully evaluated in transgenic cotton plants. One promoter from a photosynthetic gene has been developed into gene constructs and introduced into both an easily engineered model plant and also into transgenic cotton, so that we can test its performance under field conditions. All the data is not yet to hand, but we hope that this, and other promoters to be analysed later, will give robust field expression in transgenic cotton and add to our toolkit of genes and pieces of genes from which we can develop more robust transgenic products for the cotton industry as well as provide biotechnologists with a greater selection of promoters to produce new biotech products.