Internationally, sticky cotton is a major concern for the textile industry (Hector & Hodkinson 1989). Physiological plant sugars in immature fibres, contaminants from crushed seed and seed coat fragments, grease, oil and pesticide residues are all potential sources. However, all are insignificant compared with honeydew contamination from Bemisia tabaci and Aphis gossypii (Hector & Hodkinson 1989; Ellsworthy et al. 1999a; Hequet & Abidi 2002). The underlying reason is the distribution of the sugars along the fibre. Physiological sugars, grease and oil are usually distributed evenly over the fibre whereas sugars from honeydew tend to be in scattered concentrations (Bruno 1984). In the latter, these sugars lead to uneven yarn which is prone to breaking during weaving and knitting of fabrics (Hequet & Abidi 2002) as well as impeding fibre handling and causing in severe circumstances mill shutdown to clean equipment (Ellsworthy et al. 1999a). A reputation for stickiness has a negative impact on sales, exports and price for cotton from regions suspected of having stickiness. Reductions in the market value of lint due to stickiness are applied regionally and indiscriminately. In Arizona, perceptions regarding stickiness lead to a -5.63c/lb discount relative to Californian cotton (Ellsworthy et al. 1999a).

More than 20 different sugars are excreted in honeydew (Hendrix & Wei 1994) and most are insect rather than plant derived (Tarczynski et al. 1992; Salvucci et al. 1997). The major sugars excreted by A. gossypii are melezitose, sucrose, glucose and fructose while for B. tabaci, there is the additional sugar, trehalulose. Analysis by Hendrix et. al. (1992) of aphid and silverleaf whitefly honeydew from insects feeding on cotton indicated around 40% of total sugars present was melezitose in the aphid honeydew, while silverleaf whitefly honeydew exhibited about 40% trehalulose plus about 17% melezitose.

The two sugars that contribute most to cotton stickiness problems are trehalulose and melezitose (Henneberry et al. 1995, 1996, 1998a, 1998b; Gamble 2001) and both are produced as a result of transglycosylation reactions involving dietary sucrose (Wei et al. 1997). The lint content of both trehalulose and melezitose were quantitatively linked to insect numbers. The composition of honeydew collected directly from Bemisia was found to be virtually identical to that recovered from contaminated lint (Hendrix 1995) and poinsettia (Byrne & Miller 1990). For B. tabaci first and second instars produce less trehalulose than third and fourth instars while adults produce more than nymphs. In contrast, more melezitose was produced by nymphs than adults (Henneberry et al. 1999). While trehalulose and melezitose are significant contributors to sticky cotton the interaction between these, other sugars and cotton stickiness is poorly understood and complicated by the fact that other sugars such as sucrose glucose and fructose occur in both honeydew and cotton lint (Henneberry et al. 1998a).

Using the thermodetector method to measure cotton stickiness (Henneberry et al. 2000) increases in thermodetector sticky cotton counts were closely correlated with increasing numbers of whitefly nymphs and adults. The experience from the USA suggests that the threshold of concern for sticky cotton is indicated by thermodetector measurement ≥ 5 (Frydrych 1986; Brushwood & Perkins 1993). To reach this level, whitefly numbers needed to be ≥ 8.9 adults per leaf or ≥ 3.2 nymphs/cm2 (Henneberry et al. 1998a). This is well below the action thresholds for insect growth regulators (Ellsworthy et al. 1999b). Further, Yee et al. (1997) and Henneberry et al. (1998) indicated that insecticide applications at an average of 10 adults per leaf reduced honeydew production as effectively as applications at 5 adults per leaf. However, standardised sampling protocols, and the relationship between levels of stickiness in the field and problems arising in textile mills are still not well understood (Henneberry et al. 1998a). This is apparent if one plots the data from the USA against thermodetector readings (Henneberry et al. 1998a, 1998b, 2000) (Fig 1). The considerable scatter associated with the correlation underlines the lack of a clear cut decision point with regards to concentrations of trehalulose and melezitose and stickiness.

Little is known about the main predators of emerging pests in Bt cotton. To fill this gap a marking technique using ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay), was adapted to assess predation on mirids, Helicoverpa eggs, and cotton aphids. The technique involves marking target pests with rabbit IgG protein and then using ELISA to detect the presence of the protein in predators who may have consumed the pest. The technique was first tested under laboratory conditions, and then applied under field conditions.

Travel grant to attend the 10th International Symposium on Microbial Ecology, 2005

Project US65C: Diversity of VAM fungi in soil health

Travel to participate in the 2005 Beltwide Cotton Conference, January 4th-7th, New Orleans, USA, to visit the USEPA in Washington, DC, USA, and to carry out research within the Centre for Toxicology, Department of Environmental Biology, University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada. Dr Murray attended presented a paper entitled ‘Area-wide management of Helicoverpa spp. in an Australian mixed cropping agroecosystem’.

Travel to attend the 12th Cotton Conference, Gold Coast, August 2004. Abstract presented as a poster at the conference.

Our new project on studying Thielaviopsis basicola-cotton interactions was presented in this conference series for the first time. I was invited by the conference organisers to present this topic in a poster and to include a summary in the conference proceedings. This hopefully enhanced the recognition of the project by other cotton researchers and industry and possibly enhanced collaborations with other researchers working on cotton disease.

In addition, I enhanced my knowledge on the current status of cotton in Australia, the needs of the industry and what other researchers are working on.

1. International Instrument Testing of Cotton Best Practices GuideThere was consensus at the CSITC meeting in Bremen that there should be one instrument testing manual based on harmonisation of the existing ITMF and USDA guidelines.

The guide at the moment is very much in draft form. CSITC are looking for input from a range of organisations from instrument manufacturers to mills. I have put my name down for input. It is important that this guide conforms with the CCAA BMP so Australian input is important.

Some of the requirements are as follows:

* Sampling at gin including sample weight and dimensions

* Calibration material – some countries still using ICC calibration cottons which can test differently to HVI calibration cottons. India producing and testing using ICC calibration cottons

* Laboratory environment including conditioning, space for instruments, lab design and sample conditioning

* Calibration, sample testing and quality of data

* Participation in CSITC round trials & qualification of instruments

2. Reports on 2010 round trialsResults from RT 2010-3 show that a record number of labs and instruments participated. There were 77 labs and 123 instruments. Results for 2010 show no difference in variation from previous years.

CSITC would like all labs to send their results for future round trials electronically via CSITC website. Results can be sent directly from instrument software which is preferred option. Instructions for this will be with samples for RT 2010-4.

RT 2010-4 will include optional Leaf area % and Leaf count for data input.

RT 2010-4 will include HVI calibration micronaire low and high cottons if required.

3. Interpreting CSITC combined properties measurement and measurements for each parameter

CSITC looking at new system that avoids rating labs but provides additional information on consistency and repeatability. This was brought about by some labs not understanding the current CSITC round trial results system and not knowing whether they are testing within acceptable tolerances.

4. Discussion on Instrument colour

It was discussed whether instrument colour Rd & +b values could be traded in the future rather than the current instrument colour grade system or visual classification. The Zimbabwe representative was against instrument Rd & +b values, believing that this could discount cotton from this region given their high +b readings. It was decided as a project that Axel would look at the variability and repeatability of both Rd & +b values and what tolerances could be used if trading on instrument colour.

The CCAA is looking at Australian colour grade chart for instrument testing to replace the existing US colour grade chart. Trials are still continuing in this area.

Should Australia look at trading on Rd & +b values rather than instrument or visual colour grades?

5. Election of Chair of CSITC

Andrew Macdonald was voted as CSITC chair for the next two years.

Visit to USDA Classing Facility in Lubbock

I visited Lubbock classing facility with Jimmy Knowlton. Unfortunately there was no classing with the crop in the High Plains due in the next couple of weeks.

Lubbock operates 24 hours 7 days a week employing 300 people over 3 shifts. The USDA class colour grade by Instrument and are looking at classing leaf grade by instrument. They plan to have all cotton classed for instrument colour grade and leaf grade by 2012. All facilities now testing with HVI 1000 and the USDA are happy with the leaf measurement on this instrument. They use software provided by Uster that measures leaf grade by both Area % and Count. The software we use in Australia only uses Area % for leaf grade. I will take this up with Uster representative in Australia to find out if we can trial the USDA software.

TheManual class will only be checking for extraneous matter.

USDA qualify all their instruments before each classing season.

The USDA has not performed any study on variation between round and conventional modules. At this stage they do not see any reason for this given they test every bale within a module.

Interesting Breakout Sessions during ICAC included:

* Improving industry efficiency in storage, transportation and handling

* Best Practices in Cotton ginning – I attended this session and included guidelines that ginning BMP in Australia has in place.

The Australian Farm Institute (AFI) held the Harvesting the Benefits of Digital Agriculture conference at the Crown Promenade Melbourne on the 15th and 16th of June 2017. With support from gold partners, PwC, and bronze partners, Myriota, SST Software, Cotton Research and Development Corporation (CRDC), Geosys, Monsanto, National Narrowband Network Company, DiscoveryAg, Rezare Systems and ICT International, the conference was a great success, attracting over 300 delegate registrations and extensive media coverage from The Australian, ABC Landline, Australian Financial Review, The Weekly Times, ABC Rural, and Stock and Land/ Fairfax Rural.

The conference built on the themes explored in AFI’s 2016 Digital Disruption in Agriculture conference, which examined the potential for digital technologies to change farm production practices and inform decision-making through accumulation and analysis of vast amounts of data. This year’s Harvesting the Benefits of Digital Agriculture conference went beyond individual applications of technology to explore the ways that entire agricultural supply chains, business systems and government and market compliance systems could be disrupted and changed by digital agriculture. The program included 27 speakers spread over eight sessions, including a closing panel of experts who provided their opinions on technology in agriculture around the world. Presentation session themes and speakers included:

1. Who will benefit from digital agriculture?

2. Digital technology through the supply chain (and its impact on-farm

3. The role of digital technologies in governance and compliance systems

4. The impacts of digital technologies on the rural workforce

5. Traceability and provenance – will digital technologies help to sell agricultural produce with confidence and will farmers see the benefit?

6. The connection between digital agriculture and agricultural finance

7. Is the agriculture sector ‘investment ready’ for digital products and services?

8. Closing panel – the global context

This project focused on developing and testing best management options for key pests in Bollgard®II and conventional cotton. The influence of the surrounding habitat (Bollgard®II & conventional cotton, sorghum and maize) on natural enemy abundance and diversity was also investigated.

Field sampling showed that the Bt toxin was effective against Helicoverpa, providing a high level of efficacy season long. The beneficial complex between conventional cotton and Bollgard®II was assessed. Species diversity and abundance in Bollgard®II was higher than that in conventional cotton sprayed with broad-spectrum insecticides. However it was found that Bollgard®II contained significantly fewer predatory bugs and lacewings than low-sprayed or IPM sprayed conventional cotton. Bollgard®II did not have any apparent impact on parasitism levels by Trichogramma, a key natural enemy of Helicoverpa.

The role of landscape diversity in augmenting natural enemies was investigated by intercropping sorghum, maize and cotton. Sorghum was found to contain many key natural enemies of Helicoverpa and aphids. Trichogramma parasitism was found to be higher in cotton adjacent to maize with evidence of decreasing parasitism approximately 50 metres from the cotton - maize interface. Various trials conducted during the project gave evidence that sorghum – cotton farmscapes encouraged numbers of ladybirds (particularly ladybird larvae), pirate bugs and spiders and increased Trichogramma parasitism in adjacent cotton. The abundance of predators in sorghum was variable across years, however even when numbers were low there was evidence that the sorghum was contributing to insect diversity and abundance in adjacent cotton. This supports the hypothesis that natural enemies may use sorghum or maize as a haven and disperse into nearby cotton fields.

The most serious pest of Bollgard®II on the Southern Downs over the three years of the project was green mirids. Each year of the project commercially managed dryland Bollgard®II was compared to an unsprayed crop to assess economic damage from mirids. Though water availability was variable (high and low) across years, there was no difference in yield making unsprayed Bollgard®II the more economical crop. Insecticides used to needlessly control mirids, decimated natural enemies, potentially contributing to aphid and whitefly infestations in Bollgard®II.

Though in their infancy, farmscaping trials were encouraging and the cotton industry should continue to promote this method of enhancing natural enemies in Bollgard®II and conventional cotton. For Bollgard®II these practices should reduce pest infestations i.e. aphids and whitefly, and may also play an important role in delaying Helicoverpa resistance to Bollgard®II.

H. armigera and H. punctigera are important pests of cotton in Australia. Transgenic cotton (containing Cry1Ac) has been commercially grown in Australia for 5 years, The susceptibility of both species to Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxins in Australia field populations has been monitored since 1993.

This paper reports results of Bt resistance monitoring for the 2000/2001 cotton season as compared with results from previous seasons. Our studies indicate the development of resistance in H. armigera and possible esterase mediated mechanism of resistance in H. armigera.

CRDC has for many years supported the development and maintenance of computer systems at The Australian Cotton Research Institute, Narrabri(previous project CSF77C). These computer systems have benefited all research programs through their use in data processing, storage, statistical analysis, modeling and the development of end-user packages. In addition the network services located at ACRl provide printing services and communication which includes e-mail.

The development of the Internet in recent years has provided a means of communication and also dissemination of information. A dedicated World Wide Web server that support the Australian Cotton CRC's website is now located at ACRl. This has enabled information

and systems developed at ACRl to be made available immediately to the Cotton Industry

(e. g. updates to CottonLOGIC). Data published on this server includes daily weather data downloaded from weather stations in the cotton growing regions as well as research

publications produced by the CRC.

With the increase in computing power and staff at ACRl, the need for sustained technical support directly to the user has expanded. Support for these services is imperative to the proper functioning of the research station.

Plans at the beginning of this project were being finalised to completely reachable the Myall Vale site to CSIR0 saturation cabling standards. Both CSIRO and NSW Agriculture are providing funds for this project.