Cotton is now a significant crop in the irrigated Riverina region of southern NSW, Australia, increasing in area from approximately 39,000 ha in 2013 to 90,050 ha in 2018 and contributing from between 10-30% of Australia’s total cotton production (Cotton Info, 2018). Many cotton crops and processing facilities in the region (Whitton, Hay, Carathool) are located in close proximity (< 50 km) to chicken production (meat and eggs), which has also increased significantly in recent years. Around Griffith, NSW, it is estimated that poultry production is currently generating approximately 10,000 m3/week of manure and chicken litter (raw manure + bedding material which is usually rice hulls or sawdust). There is quite significant variability in the nutrient content and dry matter mass of manures and wastes that are cleaned out of chicken sheds (Griffiths, 2007). However, considering average values of plant total nutrients as 2.9%N, 1.2% P, 2.8 % K and 60% dry matter, our estimates suggest that on an annual regional basis, there maybe 5400 tonnes of TN, 2246 tonnes of total P and 5200 tonnes of total K. These are sizeable amounts of nutrient resources which have the potential to be relatively easily reused for productive purposes in an economically attractive way for farmers. Coincidentally, this re-use may contribute to offsetting the amount of artificially produced fertilizers that are applied regionally, which offers positive environmental outcomes.

A significant number of growers (> 50%) are applying the available chicken wastes to their land, mainly with a view to maintain or enhance yield through the soil fertility benefits that organic amendments can offer (nutrient efficiency and biological and physical property maintenance and improvement). Typically application rates are between 2-5 t/ha, spread and surface incorporated early in the winter when field conditions are optimal and nutrient mineralisation and losses are minimised due to low microbial activity under relatively cold winter conditions. When temperatures start to increase in spring, mineralisation of nutrients and other physical and biological beneficial effects of manure amendments are considered to potentially become available from planting through the growing season and long term.

The organic materials are not usually applied to fields by growers as fertilizer replacements, rather, in addition to conventional fertilizers as there is a lack of adequate manure management recommendations for use in cotton production under different soil types and cropping systems. The usual rates of 2-5 t/ha of animal manure applied are convenience based rather than research based and can’t be relied upon in high yield cotton systems without supplemental N and other nutrient fertilization. Application rates of chemical N and other fertilizers are determined from field tests, petiole tests and experience. However, there are few detailed studies on how amendments impact on soil processes and thus effect crop production (Flavel and Murphy, 2006). The productivity responses of cotton crops in major irrigated soil types of the Australian southern region to organic amendment types, rates and frequency and placement of application, alone or in combination with fertilizers is unknown. The nutritional value, extra profit and soil sustainability measures that the organic products provide in the short and long term compared with fertilizers are ambiguous and difficult to predict. One particular reason for this is that manures vary greatly in their composition and degree of stabilization. Chicken litter available N, P, K composition and moisture content can vary by 2-10 times from one batch to another (Griffiths, 2007, Azeez and Averbeke, 2010). To successfully manage nutrient cycling from chicken litter it is necessary to know their decomposition rate and the influence that may have on the biogeochemical processes in the soil to which they are being applied.

Overall, there is a large body of research that shows that application of organic amendments improves soil fertility (see reviews of Murphy, 2014, Macdonald and Baldock, 2010 and Krull, 2004). Soil organic matter affects water holding capacity, nutrient retention, cation exchange capacity, aggregate stability and buffering capacity to acidification. It has a clear effect on nutrient supply, nutrient cycling, soil strength and compaction, water infiltration and gaseous exchange. A number of studies have reported the positive effect of soil organic carbon on cereal, potato, corn and rice in tropical and sub-tropics, Russia, China, Argentina (Johnston et al, 2009, Lal, 2010, Chen et al 2018). However, there are now several reputable publications detailing rigorous meta-analysis of well-known long term crop trials that conclude, on average there are insignificant increases in yield which can be attributed to organic inputs (Edmeades, 2003; Oelofse et al, 2014; Hijbeek et al 2017). The major finding that came out of the original work of Rothamstead was that organic fertilizers gave the same yield as farmyard manure, not that synthetic fertilizers were necessarily better than organics or vice versa (Johnston and Poulton, 2018). Johnston et al (2015) has countered some of the misconceptions surrounding the effects of SOM by finding that as crop cultivars with increased yield potential have been introduced, yields in many Rothamstead long term experiments are now larger on soils with more SOM. In contrast, Oelofse et al (2014), argues that the evidence from a lot of published organic amendment trials is quite variable and obtained from one location and therefore generalisations are difficult. In many studies, the analyses are dependent on, or fail to account for other factors that can affect yield such as the mineralizable C fraction, soil fertility status and managerial inputs such as nutrients and water (Lal, 2010).

Favourable agronomic, profit and soil conditioning effects for poultry litter application in cotton production have been documented within 3-5 years, in Alabama and Mississippi on silt loam soils (Reddy et al 2007; Tewolde et al, 2007; Tewolde et al 2016) and degraded upland soils in Louisiana (Lofton et al 2014). In other studies, the benefit of poultry litter to cotton production was stated as far exceeding the nutrient concentrations through soil conditioning (Tewolde et al 2010). Mitchell and Tu (2005) found broiler litter increased cotton yield in both no till and conventional till over a 13 year period in silty clay loam non-irrigated soils and residual effects in the year after application were found to be beneficial to yield.

Fertilizer replacement value of manure is affected by a number of factors including the form of nutrients, organo-metallic complexes, in the amendment, soil type and pH, crop type, application method, timing and manuring history (Jensen, 2013). It is well known that organic amendments including chicken litter cannot be depended on in commercial situations as a soul source of crop nutrients, even when applied at high rates due to nutrient imbalances and asynchronic release of nutrients that do not match plant requirements. Supplementary synthetic fertilizers are necessary in commercial food and fibre crops but little systematic research has been undertaken to evaluate the fertilizer replacement value of organic amendments and any improvements in nutrient use efficiency they may offer.

The current project has aimed at more thoroughly establishing how to optimise the management and application of manure that is available in the southern cotton growing region for tangible productivity and nutrient use efficiency benefits. Field experiments have focussed on incorporating the use of chicken manure and litter into farmer agronomic practise and specific site issues. One focus has been on the fertilizer replacement value of the organic wastes when used in combination with chemical fertilizers for N, P and micronutrients Zn, Mn and Cu. A second focus has been on the effects that supplementary chicken litter or manure application may have to rectify productivity and nutrient deficiencies in newly developed land formed fields where ‘cuts’ can have a significant effect on productivity for several years.

Replicated cotton field trials on two soil types, red and grey chromosols with a range of chicken manure and litter amendment rates, have been established to evaluate productivity, nitrogen efficiency and macro and micro-nutrient uptake. The trials have been used to assess crop responses, examine the contributions and availability of important nutrients other than nitrogen (P, K, S, Zn, Cu) water stable aggregates and any negative or inconsequential impacts according to manure rate treatments. The work has provided regionally specific information which can be used to refine existing general manure management guidelines developed for broad acre cereals. These may assist cotton growers in the Murrumbidgee Valley to better estimate how manure may be applied to reduce synthetic fertilizer inputs without compromising yield and quality outcomes.

The potential economic gains for the Australian farm sector and associated supply chains arising from the adoption of decision agriculture will be estimated and recommendations made for business models and strategies to deliver decision agriculture products and services.

Decision agriculture is the analysis of digitally collected farm data along with other relevant digital datasets such as soils and environmental data to inform decision making associated with the production and supply of farm goods. The potential economic gain of decision agriculture will be estimated by determining the improvements to productivity and profitability that will be possible under a fully technologically enabled farm sector. The Centre for International Economics CIE-REGIONS general equilibrium model of the Australian economy will then be used to estimate the gains to the economy that could be achieved because of the increased productivity and profitability.

Decision agriculture will be enabled by access to appropriate data and data analytics, connectivity, clear value propositions and rules and procedures for data ownership and sharing. The contribution of these enabling functions to the economic gain achieved through decision agriculture will be measured through close consultation with other Precision to Decision (P2D) projects.

The provision of decision agriculture products and services to farmers will occur through private businesses, research agencies and government. Business models and strategies to deliver decision agriculture will differ depending on sector size, availability of commercial options and extent of integration with the processing sector amongst many other factors. A situation analysis will be performed to determine the structural factors for each farm sector involved in the P2D project that is relevant to the delivery of decision agriculture and appropriate recommendations made for suitable business models and strategies. Input will be obtained from an International consulting firm on the likely impact of the global development of digital agriculture technologies and associated business models.

This Travel sponsorship suuported Dr Sharwood to travel to Lubbock Texas USA to meet with Dr Paxton Payton and Dr James Mahan at the USDA-ARS to begin collaborative research to determine the interactive effects of water deficit and elevated temperature with elevated [COi) on cotton growth and physiology, and attend the Plant Biology 2015 meeting taking place at Minneapolis, Minnesota United States. Dr Sharwood presented project research results arising from the Science and Innovation Award project, along with subsequent follow up experiments.

Resistance to insecticides has repeatedly developed in Helicoverpa armigera around the world and is of major concern to the cotton industry in Australia. CYP337B3, the gene responsible for fenvalerate resistance was identified in 2012 (Joußen et al.) Different alleles of this resistance gene have been identified at different frequencies in different regions of the world. Identifying the variants present in Northern Australia gives us an insight into movement of H. armigera from Asia in Australia. A total of 91 samples from N. Australia, were tested. In this data set, the majority of individuals collected from the field in Northern Australia (80%) were positive for CYP337B3, either as a homozygote or a heterozygote. Almost half (47%) of the alleles sequenced from Northern Australia were found to be the allele predominantly found in Asia (CYP337B3v2) as compared to 20% of alleles from the cotton growing regions identified as Asian. The major implication from this work is that there is gene flow between Asian populations and Australia. F2 testing of an individual collected from the Ord River showed that this CYP337B3v2 gene was associated with survival of a discriminating dose of fenvalerate. Further work is required to examine connectivity between these populations and the potential risk of other resistance alleles arriving from Asia.

The Cotton export market is highly competitive and when it comes to quality Australia needs to be the world's best. To realise this goal, the whole of the Australian Cotton supply chain must continuously improve its supply of premium upland cotton. Cotton spinning mills already recognise that Australian cotton has desirable fibre characteristics and low contamination. These attributes increase efficiency for spinners and they actively seek Australian cotton and are sometimes prepared to pay a premium. To maintain this reputation continuous improvement across the whole supply chain is essential. The Australian cotton industry and CSIRO have expanded investment in post-harvest cotton processing research. The aim is to discover ways of maintaining and enhancing the quality of cotton produced by Australian growers. In July 2008 Rene van der SIuijs and the CSIRO team in Geelong opened the doors of their facility and hosted the 7th 'Cotton Field to Fabric Course'. This was the 8th course run in Geelong and it has been attended by participants from the length and breadth of the supply chain. They have included Agronomists, Growers, Researchers, Ginners and even students studying design. The course provided participants with an opportunity to see firsthand how cotton is processed from a bale into fabric. At Geelong they have both full scale and miniature versions of the equipment used in cotton processing factories used overseas including drawing and carding machines, spinning frame, weaving machines, and dyeing facilities. Understanding how these processes occur helps participants understand the importance quality standards and how our actions impact on the chain. The Australian cotton industry will benefit from a focus on its customer's needs and a desire to exceed their expectations. The' field to fabric 'course is one activity that the industry is undertaking to increase knowledge of cotton quality. It comes highly recommended by all who have participated.

The 2015 Australian Cotton Production Manual is a critical reference tool for cotton growers: a one-stop-shop of on-farm cotton production information.

This project used a series of communication processes to structure an engagement strategy between CRDC and Crop Consultants Australia or CCA and the wider cotton industry R&D organisations. The objectives were to facilitate the delivery of cotton industry funded R&D results to growers via crop consultant members of the CCA as a key information conduit – and to create a strategic engagement process that would last 3-5 years through a process sustained by a robust business model where CCA could ultimately be regarded as an ‘extension agency of the cotton industry’.

This process was to be complemented by a wider agribusiness engagement strategy to secure similar support of the wider agribusiness sectors operating in the cotton industry. This strategy is proposed for development during 2010/11.

The project resulted in a roundtable meeting on 21 May 2010 between CRDC, Cotton Catchments CRC and Cotton Australia, as well as CCA, to agree on a series of tasks and actions that had been developed during the course of the project. These are proposed to be implemented during 2010/11 to commence delivery of R&D results to growers via CCA.

The elements of this new CCA business model include – a web portal allowing access to research results; re-development of the current 2x Annual CCA Forums to increase their effectiveness and responsiveness to industry issues; ensuring interim R&D results are available; trialling new methods of consultant interaction / communication; development of an Annual Research Review to build on the Annual Forums; the CCA Annual Survey; an Annual Cotton Meetings Calendar; structuring of greater collaboration between GRDC and CRDC; input / feedback on R&D priorities / projects; input / feedback at the development stage of R&D projects; supporting field trials and accessing the results; benchmarking / evaluation to support understanding the effectiveness of the projects and supporting implementation of myBMP.

The project resulted in a series of recommendations to maintain the momentum – that

Commissioned Projects are developed; that PRPs are defined for the remaining functions; that key personnel are defined to maintain the role of the project leader (who has acted as an outsider looking in with a singular role to meet the project objectives and be accountable for doing so through strong robust communication); that there is a strong need to explore the potential for engagement of GRDC through, and in collaboration with, the Northern Grower Alliance to structure collaboration between cotton and grains initiatives; that is critical to recognise that should the cotton R&D sector not elect to continue the initiatives created during this project – or CCA not elect to continue – then each sector would lose considerable credibility with the other (noting that CCA has some 140 current members and a potential pool of 300 members that could become cotton industry R&D outcome deliverers or advocates direct to cotton growers); that it is imperative for the engagement that has commenced between CRDC and CCA to continue in a timely and organised manner and that the wider agribusiness engagement strategy must be implemented through.

Australian cotton fibre is exported into a dynamic and competitive market and we need to ensure an ever-improving product to meet the demand from spinners. This pressure has led to fibre quality becoming just as an important factor as cotton yield for maintaining industry viability. Crop agronomy practices such as choice of variety, nutrition management, irrigation management, disease insect and weed management can significantly affect fibre quality. In addition, seasonal or environmental factors out of the control of the growers can also contribute to reductions in quality. CSIRO Plant Industry has fibre quality as one of our major focus subjects for plant breeding and agronomic management. This project aimed at strengthening/enhancing the cotton research efforts in delivering initiatives that focus on management aspects of fibre quality (other than breeding and processing). This project aimed to fill a gap that exists in developing management strategies in the field that optimise cotton fibre properties. The specific aims are: 1. Targeted research to improve the understanding of the effects of different climate, plant and management factors on fibre properties.

2. Utilise agronomy and physiology research tools such as OZCOT simulation to develop guidelines to assist in the management of cotton to optimise yield and fibre quality.

3. Strengthen agronomic research to meet the needs of the ‘Fibre to Fabric’ initiative. This project was successful in providing important technical and operating resources for research and extension into cotton fibre quality in-field management issues through:

• Demonstrating that modifying sowing date for Bollgard II can offer a ‘systems solution’ to provide benefits in terms of maintaining yield and improving fibre quality.

• Demonstrating that manipulation of plant population in both conventional and Bollgard II systems does not lead to improvements in both yield and quality.

• Providing further knowledge of the interactions of Bollgard II and row configurations in dryland cotton systems and their impacts on both yield and quality. A spreadsheet was developed that compared the yield, quality and cost associated with different row configurations and is being used by CSD for their dryland workshops.

• Developing a functional relationship between temperature and fibre micronaire which was used to improve the fibre quality predictive capability of OZCOT.

• Collecting data that will help to understand the impact of cloudy conditions and variations in temperature on fibre micronaire.

• Supporting the ‘Linking farming systems with textile performance’ project.

• Raising the awareness of the effects of climate and management on fibre quality through the fibre to fabric road show and Geelong course, FIBREpak introduction, and various other industry forums. Ongoing on-farm research into fibre quality has been supported through the project ‘Linking farming systems with textile performance’ supported by CSIRO, the Cotton CRC and CRDC. Along with new on-farm research, Michael Bange, Greg Constable and Jane Caton will continue to support the provision of new initiatives and resources for the post harvest research component of this project.

This project was a main source of technical support and operating funds for Dr Michael Bange who also had significant responsibilities for supervision of Cotton Decision Support initiatives. Dr Bange maintained a research portfolio in crop physiology, agronomy and farming systems across the industry during the course of this project.

The use of pyrethroid insecticides on Helicoverpa armigera susceptible crops has been restricted to only 6 weeks each summer since 1983, when resistance to pyrethroids was diagnosed. The long term management of resistance in H.armigera is based on the hypothesis that after pyrethroid spraying ceases, resistance will decrease, partly due to dilution by susceptible immigrants from unsprayed refugia. The long term liability of the strategy will be favoured by the refugia remaining uncontaminated by resistant H.armigera. Success of the strategy will be enhanced if resistant individuals have a higher overwintering mortality than susceptibles. Project DAN 36 L aimed to test these assumptions by determining the frequency of pyrethroid resistant H.armigera from areas where insecticide use was infrequent and to test the resistance status of the overwintering and spring populations of H.armigera . This project was a collaborative effort between researchers from NSW Agriculture & Fisheries and CSIRO Division of Entomology.