Ginning is an energy intensive process. This project evaluates the energy usage inside the cotton gins in Australia. electricity use is found to range between 44-66 kWh per bale, with national average being 52.3 kWh. The electricity consumption for different gins is nearly linearly correlated with bale numbers produced. The electricity network charge is a significant cost in cotton ginning operations. Maximum demand occupies 48-67% of total kW required to run all the energy-consuming equipment. All gins monitored had an overall power factor of higher than 0.85.

Drying temperature generally increases as module moisture increases. It is also found that the regulated drying temperature for the cotton dryer has a strong relationship with the incoming module moisture. Gas usage is strongly influenced by the amount of moisture removed from the incoming cotton as well as the regulated drying temperature. The drying process uses some 0.74 – 3.90 m3 of natural gas or 2.27 – 5.61 litres of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) per bale. Overall thermal efficiency of the drying process is lower than 15%. The cost of gas in producing one bale ranges between $0.98–3.39/bale. Overall, the gas and electricity usage comprises approximately 39% and 61% respectively of the total energy usage (GJ/bale) in the cotton ginning process. On average, the total ―national benchmark energy cost (both electricity and gas) is $ 10.70/ bale. 60.38 kg of CO2 are emitted due to the energy use for processing each bale of cotton.

A method for the detailed monitoring of energy performance in cotton ginning is developed and described. Detailed monitoring and analysis were carried out at two gin sites. It is found that changes in trash content in the module, degree of moisture and lint quality produced do not have significant influence on electricity usage. However, the cotton variety is shown to affect the energy usage. The energy used within each ginning sub-process is quite different between the two gins monitored.

Overall, cotton handling is found to have the largest energy requirement and accounts for almost 50% of the total power usage in both gins. When combined, packaging and handling account for approximately 70% of the total power required. A significant proportion of motors inside the gins are found to operate at less than 40% loading. The low power factors of individual motors have been successfully corrected by the capacitor banks so that the overall power factor of the whole gin is satisfactory.

This project resolved two long-standing anomalies regarding Cry2Ab resistance in H. armigera. The first was the observation that frequently a greater proportion of survivors (assumed to be homozygous resistant insects) were observed in F2 tests than the expected 1/16. The second was that F1 tests yield a greater frequency of resistance than F2 tests. The latter anomaly has created concern as some observers question which test, or indeed do either test, provide reliable data. We have found that both anomalies stem from a common cause, namely that the offspring from single pairs of field-collected insects mate infrequently in the laboratory. As a result some F2 tests yield a distorted ratio of resistant and susceptible insects. Also when few females mate, the informative mating type (heterozygote x heterozygote) may not occur and a false negative F2 test is generated. This problem is not shared by F1 tests as only one round of mating is required (field insect x laboratory homozygous resistant) and if that mating does not occur, viable offspring are not generated and no result can be scored. Thus F1 tests provide a reliable measure of the frequency of resistance in the population.

While not part of the objectives of the project, studies on Vip3A resistance were also initiated. This proved fortuitous as Monsanto has announced an intention to add the vip3a gene to their Bollgard II variety to produce Bollgard III. Our work has permitted the determination of preliminary estimates of the frequency of Vip3A resistance in both species. For H. armigera 2.5% of all alleles are of the resistant form and thus resistance is exceptionally high. Preliminary characterisation of Vip3A resistance isolates of both H. armigera and H. punctigera is underway. Further work to detect and then test through complementation tests additional isolates is required. Other forms of resistance may be present that have quite different characteristics to the ones already examined and therefore pose a different level of threat. Further work is also required to determine if fitness costs are associated with Vip3A resistance before an appropriate RMP can be developed for Bollgard III that causes minimal constraints on growers while protecting the longevity of Bt technology.When contemplating a RMP for Bollgard III, one key point merits emphasis. The resistance status of Cry2Ab toxin is presently of concern and if the susceptibility of H. armigera populations is lost through the evolution of resistance before Bollgard III is widely deployed, much of the longevity of the new variety will be lost. The existing frequency of Vip3A resistance will ensure that susceptibility to the new toxin will be quickly lost. Then, despite Bollgard III being a three toxin product, it will be rendered the equivalent of a single toxin (Cry1Ac) product, perhaps indistinguishable in efficacy from the early transgenic variety Ingard. Then as functionally a single gene product, a reversion to a more restrictive RMP would be necessary to provide even limited longevity of the susceptibility of H. armigera to Cry1Ac. Recently, the Bt monitoring program has identified for the first time several instances of Cry1Ac resistance in H. punctigera, so that species would also need to be watched. The possibility that alternative technology companies with a different array of toxins may enter the Australian market is unlikely to offer a practical solution, as all varieties of transgenic cotton already commercialised, or nearing commercialisation, express one or more of the Cry1, Cry2 or Vip classes of toxins derived from Bacillus thuringiensis. Cross resistance occurs between different Cry1’s for other Lepidoptera (Ferré and Van Rie 2002) and is evident among different Cry2’s in H. armigera (Mahon et al. 2007a, Caccia et al. 2010). As our isolations of Vip resistance are the first for any species, cross resistance among Vip toxins is yet to be tested, but are also likely. Thus from theauthors perspective, in the longer term, if the Cry2Ab resistance situation deteriorates further, the industry should go to whatever lengths necessary to protect the susceptibility of Cry2Ab until Bollgard III becomes available. This might cause pain in the short term, but models of the evolution of resistance incorporating 10 years of data gathered on resistance to the three Bt toxins suggest that the payoff to growers through greatly increased longevity of the Bt technology would eclipse the temporary pain.

The ‘Regional Cotton Extension Officer’ has played a key role in improving the uptake of research

within the Cotton Industry by jointly working with the Cotton Catchment Communities Cooperative

Research Centre (Cotton CRC) and the NSW DII. This position is a critical component of regional

delivery, and is about delivering local outcomes within a national framework.

The Regional Cotton Extension Officers work with producers, industry and partner organisations to

achieve ‘on-ground’ outcomes through the development of collaborative activities and partnerships.

‘Cotton Fusarium Wilt Management’, had a number of objectives to obtain data to improve the management of this disease. The three year project resulted in several important outcomes with direct consequence for the industry.

Outcome 1. Collection of disease incidence data annually has enabled the quantification of the relative performance of disease threats and the effectiveness of response, and the detection of new pathogens and problems.

Planting resistant varieties, delaying planting to avoid cold shock and sowing seed treated with BION have contributed to the reduction in the incidence of Fusarium wilt over the last two seasons compared over eight.

Irrigation water management from Fusarium infested fields is important as use of irrigation water from the tail-drain will increase the incidence of Fusarium wilt.

It is important to manage volunteer cotton as they harbour pests and diseases; carrying them from season to season providing an inoculum source for re-infection of crops.

The identification of a new cotton pathogen in Australia during disease surveys highlights the importance of these surveys. Nematospora coryli is a fungus that causes several serious diseases of cotton including seed rot, internal boll rot (stigmatomycosis) and tight lock. The fungus is the only plant pathogenic yeast and is spread to bolls punctured by insects during feeding. Insect control is the best way to prevent infection, although improved cultivar resistance may be possible.

Outcome 2. The diversity of Fov in cotton growing regions is changing.

Further isolates of the Mungindi strain detected in 2005 were again detected in 2009 from the same field. Pathogenicity tests determined that these isolates were pathogenic on a susceptible cotton host. AFLP analysis determined that the isolates did not belong to VCG 01111 or 01112, but were similar to the original Mungindi strain. An understanding of pathogen diversity is very important when screening germplasm for resistance.

To enhance the diagnostic capabilities of DEEDI staff, training in Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism PCR has commenced. This technique will be used as a tool to characterise Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum (Fov).Outcome 3. Since the pathogen remains indefinitely in the soil, using rotations as a management tool may be limited; however a maize/sorghum-fallow-cotton rotation looks promising. Growers need to manage residues (and weeds) through fallow periods and use green manure/cover crops with caution where Fusarium is present.

An understanding of the effect of different rotation and residue management on incidence of Fusarium wilt in subsequent cotton crops will provide growers and consultants with greater options and improved decision support packages to manage Fusarium wilt.Outcome 4. Fusarium wilt severity is influenced by the balance of nutrients; however cultivars differing in disease resistance are affected differently in some instances.

Fertiliser recommendations are developed to optimise nutrient uptake and provide the crop with adequate nutrients for normal growth and yield. An understanding of how N, P and K influences Fusarium wilt severity will provide growers with improved decision making tools for the management of this disease.

These early trials in the investigation of N, P and K on disease management highlight the importance of nutrient balance in the soil. This is achieved through knowledge of what is present in the soil and what is being removed, and developing an appropriate nutrient replacement program.

In general, higher disease ratings were observed in plants with lower levels of nutrients applied, particularly low N (0 and 40 kg N/ha), and lower disease ratings tended to have higher N (120, 150 and 250 kg N/ha) and K (100 kg K/ha) applied.

Due to the ongoing drought throughout the cotton growing regions there has been a decline in both investment dollars and human resources. This decline had impacted on the cotton CRC's ability to extend new research from the scientific community to the industry's growers. Unfortunately, a number of the extension officers positions had been vacant throughout many of the cotton valleys for a period of time.

Therefore it was decided to look at an alternative approach to fulfilling the needs of the growers and ensure that they were being informed of the latest research and best management practices via the extension model.As such, project 5.01.23con was initiated so as to employ on a part time basis, the services of an independent consultant in the Lower Balonne region(St George, Dirranbandi & Thallon) to extend these new research outcomes to growers in these areas.

Dallas king via Balonne Agricultural consultancy was contracted for two years to provide this service to the Lower Balonne region.

The Australian Government’s investment in Firestarter’s One Life, One World, Our Future - Education for Sustainability Program in developing this Icon Project has created hundreds of regional and state partnerships between key natural resource

management agencies, schools, corporates, industry, tertiary institutions, non government agencies and the general public.

Seven successful programs and associated Conferences were held as part of the Icon Project, attracting 2106 delegates from 215 schools in Australia and overseas. Some 132 presentations were given by schools, assisted by almost 290 volunteers. Over 70 separate Environmental Project Day activities were held. Seven Steering Committees of experts were convened to oversee each Conference. A broad range of stakeholders and sponsors was attracted to each.

Firestarter’s enthusiasm, professionalism and skill meant the $500,000 investment from the Australian Government was used to leverage another $943,289. This does not include in kind support or the time and energy of members of the Steering

Committees, Reference Committee or mentors. Media coverage for all events was consistent and strong. Over the seven Conferences print, television and radio were

heavily used.

The delegate evaluation data shows that all participants were enthusiastic about their involvement in the One Life, One World, Our Future - Education for Sustainability Program. While individual recommendations have been developed for each of the separate events, overall it is clear that the evaluation was highly positive and that there is a strong demand for future, similar opportunities.

Post Conference, many schools have started new environmental initiatives within their communities. These projects demonstrate the lasting impact of the Kids Teaching Kids methodology and the One Life, One World, Our Future - Education for

Sustainability Program.

Demand, exposure, matched support and enthusiasm for the One Life, One World, Our Future - Education for Sustainability Program remains justifiably high. Firestarter recommends that long term, preferably three-year, funding is required to ensure

the ongoing development of this successful program.

Green mirid, Creontiades dilutus is an important pest of cotton. There is an ongoing

debate as to whether mirids that occur in cotton are derived from locally occurring

populations or whether they arrive in cotton after a long distance migration. Nancy

Schellhorn has data which shows that mirid juveniles occur on a range of native

Chenopods that occur in a continuous north-south distribution extending from coastal

regions to the interior. The question is therefore whether mirids form a contiguous

panmictic population across this resource or whether populations follow a

metapopulation structure. Microsatellites are the tool of choice for teasing apart this

structure and to determine effective population size. De Barro (Molecular Ecology, in

press) has used microsatellites to unravel the geographic structure of Bemisia tabaci in

Asia and Australia and Schellhorn, De Barro, Buckley (CSE/UQ), Riginos (UQ) are about

to undertake a joint PhD project aimed at using microsatellites to investigate questions of

scale and landscape structure in regards to the silverleaf whitefly. By collecting mirids at

different geographic locations; from a range of different plant host species and at

different times in the year it will be possible to tease apart the structure of mirid

populations. The patterns uncovered will enable the relative contributions of distance

and host to population structure and the source of mirids infesting cotton to be

determined.

CRDC research partner, the Queensland Department of Agriculture and Fisheries (QDAF), commissioned an impact assessment of the CRDC-supported project 'Strengthening the Central Highlands Cotton Production System' in 2017.

The research, which examined how to help Queensland’s Central Highlands cotton growers overcome climate challenges, identified that a key tactic may be for growers to plant considerably earlier than the traditional planting window in an effort to pull the boll-filling period forward into spring and early summer when weather conditions are at their most reliable. The research was put to the commercial test in 2016-17, with great success and as a result, it is anticipated that some 80 per cent of growers in the Central Highlands region will utilise the early-planting research outcomes to plant in August for the 2017-18 season.

The impact analysis of the research found that the total investment into the project was $1.18 million, and the value of total economic benefits back to growers and the industry was $20.24 million – a benefit-cost ratio of approximately 17.1 to 1.

The funding for project CA1804 was the underwriting of the 2018 Australian Cotton Conference. The purpose of the biannual conference is to provide a platform for sharing the increasing industry knowledge relating to research and development.

The Australian Cotton Conference is a platform that fulfils many functions for industry and our aims in 2018 were to:

a) Increase industry knowledge relating to R&D and extension activities and how to implement those activities at a local level.

b) Provide a platform to share information, discuss and debate issues confronting the Australian cotton industry (and agriculture in general). Those included cotton and agriculture’s place on a global and local level; competition (synthetics); branding and promotion of Australian cotton; on-farm issues (and research areas relating to the same) with an overall theme of pushing boundaries with a key segment of digital technology. The program also included specific non-cotton presenters that aimed at providing personal development opportunities to all delegates.

(c) Provide an opportunity for all sectors of industry to come together to foster and grow a culture for learning and innovation. Conference provided an opportunity for connectivity and a vision for the long-term sustainability of our industry.

(d) Provide an overall “health” and wellbeing check to industry by way of the health check stand where delegates were invited to undertake some basic health checks (blood pressure, cholesterol, healthy lifestyle analysis and skin checks; presentations about health (particularly focussing on mental health). Heart of Australia also provided comprehensive heart health checks.

Delegates were provided with boundless opportunities to share information, discuss and debate issues confronting the Australian cotton industry (and agriculture in general); cotton and agriculture’s place on a global and local level; competition (synthetics); branding and promotion of Australian cotton; on-farm issues (and research areas relating to the same). The program also included specific non-cotton presenters that aimed at providing personal development opportunities to all delegates. Preventative health staff from New England HealthWISE, Heart of Australia, Australian Hearing and UNE medical students provided health checks over 2 1⁄2 days of Conference, with 173 health checks completed.

2460 delegates 1825 male

635 female

General Delegates 898 Grower Delegates 667 Exhibitor Delegates 550 Student/U22 Delegates 25

The 2018 Australian Cotton Conference provided a platform to showcase the Australian cotton industry and enhance the outputs from CRDC funded R&D and extension activities to the industry at large.

The conference provides for the largest gathering of industry participants in any calendar year and delegates were presented with information in various formats during the conference program that demonstrated and extends improvements in outcomes for the industry.

Industry was challenged to share information, discuss, debate and respond to and adopt findings of research and projects around maximising individual and industry profitability and sustainability through the adoption of home-grown R&D.

The Australian cotton industry depends heavily on genetically engineered Bt cotton (currently in the form of Bollgard II®) which provides resistance to the key pests of cotton, larvae of the moths Helicoverpa armigera and H. punctigera. Bt cotton has enabled substantial reductions in the use of insecticides, provided greater flexibility on cotton farming systems, and made the crop easier to grow. However, as with most pest management tactics, there is potential for the pests to develop resistance, and to counter this the Australian cotton industry has developed comprehensive Resistance Management Plans (RMPs), observance of which is mandatory for growers of Bt cotton.

A traditional component of RMPs, dating from resistance management of conventional insecticides, is pupae busting, or cultivation of the soil to destroy overwintering (and potentially resistant) pupae. However, pupae busting incurs financial, agronomic and environmental costs. It restricts the implementation of minimum tillage techniques which can help prevent erosion, conserve soil moisture and enhance soil carbon. Moreover, we have demonstrated through modelling studies in this project that in modern Bt cotton systems, with high fruit retention and early maturation, many potentially resistant insects are emerging before overwintering diapause is initiated, and are thus not vulnerable to pupae busting. There is a need to develop tactics for RMPs that can fill this gap.

One potential tactic is to target moths instead of pupae, using the attract-and-kill technology Magnet® which was developed by the researchers in this project during early work in successive Cotton CRCs. Magnet® consists of a mixture of plant volatile compounds which, when combined with small quantities of insecticide, can attract and kill adult Helicoverpa spp. moths. It has impacts beyond the area in which it is applied, but with careful placement it might be able to kill proportionately more potentially resistant moths from cotton than susceptible moths from refuge crops and other sources, thereby enhancing the genetic dilution effect provided by refuge crops which are another component of RMPs. A farm scale trial conducted during this project indicated the feasibility of this approach, and helped develop techniques to be used in a larger, area-wide trial of the approach to be conducted over the next three years. If successful, this trial could lead to the development of more robust RMPs, and the reduction of elimination of the requirement for pupae busting.