The broader focus of the projectis to look at mechanisms whereby the sustainability of Australian cotton can be determined and promoted through the textile supply chain. This specific research was undertaken to develop a robust methodology to determine the carbon footprint levels of Australian cotton in accordance with international requirements.

The project consisted of three tasks:

a) The selection of a range of internationally accepted calculators suitable to cotton

by The collection of representative cotton farm data in Australia to populate the calculators with

c) A comparative analysis of the results and a recommended methodology for future assessments for the textile supply chain

Funding was therefore requested to visit some suitable farms and industry experts to collect the data.

Resistance to poses a threat to the continued sustainable production of cotton that transgenic agriculture has enabled. This project provided preliminary genomic data to investigate the evolution of resistance to glyphosate in agricultural weeds. With the Science award funding I sequenced the transcriptome (expressed genes) and also part of the genome of two weed species that have recently developed resistance to glyphosate; Fleabane (Conyza bonariensis) and Awnless Barnyardgrass (Echinochloa colona). These data form the basis of a post-doc project exploring the role of genetic diversity in the evolution of resistance, and methods that use genomic approaches to identify novel resistance mechanisms.

Fusarium wilt training for NSW DPI pathologists has valuable industry wide outcomes. Updating knowledge and testing skills will enable timely and accurate diagnosis and the ability to differentiate between various Fusarium strains. This workshop provided the opportunity to confer/collaborate with International experts for this pathogen. The International Fusarium Workshop in Kansas, USA is a workshop taught by eight international experts of Fusarium. With increased knowledge and skills, in particular morphological, genetic and molecular techniques used for identifying and characterising Fusarium, vigilance on diseases of cotton continues to be an area of ongoing education and research.

Two ambitious objectives were set for this project. The first objective was to design and build a moisture measuring sensor without the operational shortcomings of current sensors and the connection of this sensor with a moisture replenishing system. The second, unrelated to moisture management, but no less important in terms of fibre quality preservation, was to design and build a sensor to detect contamination in loose fibre linked with a system to remove detected contamination from transport ducting. Both objectives are aligned with the industry’s strategy of maintaining and improving fibre quality.

Moisture sensor

The moisture sensor was built and successfully tested in industry. Test results show the sensor gives stable, accurate results that can be used to manage heating and humidification in the gin. Results from the sensor were used to model a gin heating/humidifying control system. The model showed the system could improve fibre quality and return significant savings in energy to ginners. Applications for the moisture sensor patent in various countries are currently being made. Commercial interest in the sensor to date has been circumspect; Cotton Incorporated has indicated interest, along with Samuel Jackson (Lubbock TX). More representation to industry is needed to establish the benefits of this invention.

Contamination sensor

During this project a proof-of-concept contamination sensor was designed, built and tested at CSIRO. Components of the sensor include balanced illumination using visible light, a high speed colour line-scan camera and image analysis software. No extraction points for contaminants were developed as this is already a mature technology implemented in commercial systems for spinning mills. The components for this system were selected after review of a wide range of applicable technologies. Work is continuing with the Australian ginning industry and Loptex Italia on development and installation of contamination sensors for Australian gins.

In the autumn of 2011, CRDC identified that the forecast of a second consecutive La Nina year represented a potential disease risk to the cotton industry that was linked to the over-winter management of weeds, ratoon and volunteer cotton on farms. The disease was Cotton Bunchy Top (CBT), a viral disease that is spread by cotton aphid. Cotton aphid is a pest that can over-winter on weeds and ratoon/volunteer cotton increasing the risk of transmission of CBT in the following cotton crop.

Given the forecast for a wetter than average season in 2011/12, CRDC commissioned the Crop Consultants Association (CCA) to run an awareness campaign of its members and then ask them to survey the farms of their clients to rank CBT risk with follow-up actions and advice for those farms where the risk was assessed as moderate to high.

The project enlisted the assistance of the cotton industry’s Development and delivery team to develop the awareness resources (information sheet and video on aphids, farm hygiene and CBT) as well as the survey tool. A total of 48 CCA members participated in the survey leading to a comprehensive assessment of risk on many cotton farms with those at most risk receiving follow up visits and development of action plans to control over-wintering weeds and/or ratoon or volunteer cotton.

The project was a success on a number of fronts:

1. It developed improved resources on aphids, the importance of overwintering weed farm hygiene and the reduction of risk for the transmission of CBT the following season.

2. It established an integrated working relationship between the CCA and the cotton Development and Delivery

3. It delivered an effective short-term campaign which improved the knowledge of CCA members and led to an improved response to this threat thus reducing risk of CBT becoming a major threat in the 2011-12 season.

Diseases of Cotton XI project aimed to increase Australia’s biosecurity preparedness through

early detection by completing annual disease surveillance on commercial cotton farms,

recording the presence/absence of exotic cotton diseases and establishing Australia’s capacity

to screen for exotic strains of bacterial blight.

Seedling diseases continue to threaten the productivity and sustainability of cotton production

in Australia. Seedling disease occurs when cotton is invaded by a number of soil-borne fungi

including Pythium and Rhizoctonia spp. Continued independent evaluation of effectiveness

of seed treatment fungicides and combinations against seedling disease is needed. These

trials provide the most up to date information on new and existing seed treatments available.

The cotton industry spends millions of dollars on seed treatments each season. It is important

that the effectiveness of current fungicides (including the industry standard) and potentially

new treatments are continually evaluated. Including different chemicals and noting the

results also indicates the dominant pathogens present during each season. For example when

stand counts have been high under Apron (Metalaxyl) treatments, this can indicate that the

dominant pathogen was likely Pythium spp. Alternatively when stand counts are high under

PCNB treatments, this can indicate that Rhizoctonia was the likely dominant pathogen.

Biofumigation is the term used to describe the natural suppression of soil borne pests and

diseases using plants containing high levels of glucosinolates (GSLs) in their tissue such as

Brassica crops. Glucosinolates are naturally occurring sulphur compounds that provide

plants with protection. When these plants are incorporated into the soil, tissue is disrupted

and the glucosinolates are broken down by the plant enzyme Myrosinase to produce

phytochemicals called isothiocynates (ITCs). The ITCs are biocidal to a range of organisms

and have the potential to suppress pest and disease organisms. In previous biofumigation

experiments at Australian Cotton Research Institute (ACRI), treatments included canola,

vetch, chickpea and fallow. The biofumigation trial in this project continued the research

from Diseases of Cotton X. The biofumigation crops included vetch, Doublet fodder radish,

biofum blend (40% Doublet Fodder Radish, 50% Carinata Brassica and 10% Achilles white

mustard) and a fallow treatment. Different Brassicas release different quantities of ITCs,

therefore it is important to include more than one variety when assessing crops for

biofumigation potential.

The long term disease survey data has shown an increase in Verticillium wilt in NSW over

recent years. Cotton varieties resistance to the pathogen that causes Verticillium wilt is

temperature sensitive. Consequently varieties that are resistant at 25-27oC are susceptible at

20-22oC. Preliminary examination of some fields in the long term data had shown that fields

with a high incidence of black root rot early in the season also had high incidence of

Verticillium wilt later in the season. Discussions with leading pathologist Dr Stephen Allen

about his experiments and observations also indicated there may be an interaction. The long

term data provides an excellent opportunity to look for potential interactions between

pathogens and incidence/severity of disease.

The NSW pathology team worked in close collaboration with QDAFF pathologist Dr Linda

Smith and also UNE researcher and senior lecturer Dr Lily Pureg studying the pathogens that

cause black root rot and Verticillium wilt in cotton. NSW DPI assisted with collecting and

supplying pathogen cultures to both Linda and Lilly. NSW DPI continued to work closely

with CSIRO (planting off site trials), CSD Dr Stephen Allen with disease surveys and disease

enquiries and Dr Nilantha Hulugalle in assessing his field trials for disease.

Recommendations to Australian Industry

 It is important that Australian labs are participating in future CSITC Round trials. Our results show that we are up there with the best labs. I also believe they will get better over time with CCAA’s ongoing development of BMP standards for instrument testing. Australia is the only country that compares its own results of all instruments that participate in CSITC testing which is analysed by Rene van der Sluijs and sent to each lab. It is also pleasing to note that repeatability between CCAA instruments improved for all properties in 2008 for CCAA check test program.

 While commercial tolerances for trade and arbitration have been put on hold it would be good to analyse CCAA labs to ensure we

are within the specs suggested by Axel.

 Further bales should be sent to participate in future CSITC round trials

 Instrument Colour difference between HVI 100 and HVI 900 models. This was an issue but not reported this time. I will check with Axel to see if differences are still

If Australia is to maintain its reputation as a consistent supplier of high quality cotton it will need to ensure that the entire cotton pipeline from growing to ginning and warehousing to transportation and shipping in Australia conforms to industry Best Management Practices (BMP). As part of this process, the ginning sector will need to be assessed independently via a formal audit to determine its compliance with the draft Best Management Practice for Ginning, version 3.0, handbook, compiled in February 2007 by the Australian Cotton Ginners Association of Australia (ACGA). This will allow individual gins to make operational corrections to their practice so that ultimately the industry can achieve consistent and better classing grades.

To this end the ACGA has decided to conduct audits of its member gins through CSIRO Textile and Fibre Technology (CTFT), an organisation that is considered to be independent.

Polyacrylamide, commonly known as PAM, is a long-chain hydrocarbon of high molecular weight, synthesized from natural gas for a range of industrial and environmental use. In Agriculture, PAM and other polymers have been historically used as a soil conditioner similar to gypsum and lime. The purpose of this review is to establish the extent to which PAM is useful in agricultural application, particularly within the cotton industry in Australia and identify knowledge gaps and make key recommendations for future research, development and extension.

Australian and International agricultural and environmental research reviewed in Section 1 shows that anionic PAM of high molecular weight of food grade quality is possibly the best PAM formulation for land and water application because of its high solubility and purity which is capable of providing substantial benefit at extremely low concentration. High purity of PAM ensures that it contains very little impurities (particularly acrylamide, AMD units from which PAM is synthesized) which could be toxic to aquatic organisms and human. Single dose application of anionic PAM at low concentration (in the range of 1-10 ppm) with irrigation water can cause over 50% reduction in runoff and sediment loss. Other associated benefits with this type of application include reduced transport of nutrients, pesticides, weed seeds, pathogens via runoff and sediment, with little off-site impacts. Due to the need for low application rate, PAM application is economically attractive although repeated applications are necessary to derive full, long term benefit. Despite some indication that PAM degrades over time, information on the breakdown products is limited to AMD only. There is also little knowledge available currently that demonstrates how to remove PAM once it is applied to land.

The usage of PAM is significant in the Australian cotton industry with the potential peak usage of one in five of all Australian cotton fields being treated with PAM for various reasons per season. One of the main reasons for using PAM in cotton fields is to reduce irrigation-induced erosion and increase infiltration in soils with low infiltration. However, the commercial application of PAM has produced inconsistent results affecting further use. The reasons for these inconsistent results are due to a lack of understanding of the scientific and technical requirements for successful PAM application and amelioration. For example, when PAM is applied as a liquid in the irrigation water, its benefits are highly sensitive to dosage rate, water quality and soil type. It is difficult for a cotton grower to control PAM dosage as there is a lack of adequate information on the volume of water that is being delivered to the field. The efficiency of PAM application is further affected as there is not enough information readily available on the quality of irrigation water and soil condition. It may be useful to use other strategies to manage soil erosion and/or address infiltration constraints in cotton fields, but there is no best practice yet identified for cotton to combine traditional methods with application of PAM to produce beneficial, long term results. As growers’ capability in monitoring of water application rates improve over time, some improvements in PAM application efficiency are expected. However research, extension and education about the practical application of PAM for cotton growers would be highly desirable.

Using PAM to mitigate seepage and evaporation from dams and channels is an emerging and challenging opportunity that is being currently investigated by growers, PAM suppliers and researchers. However, the scientific basis of using PAM to reduce evaporation and seepage is not known as well as for evaporation control and hence, its practical application remains difficult. A collective effort is needed to better understand this area of opportunity. Supporting research, development and extension in this area would of great strategic advantage for the cotton industry.

In 2006, Tobacco streak virus (TSV) was identified as the causal agent of the devastating sunflower necrosis disease in central Queensland (CQ), and subsequently in 2007 as the cause of major losses in mungbeans in the same area. It has been a major factor in the recent downturn in the sunflower industry in CQ. Surveys in 2007/2008 as part of a one year scoping study (project 03DAQ005) found TSV in cotton in CQ. The symptoms were mostly confined to the feeding sites of the thrips and appeared as reddish spots and rings, but only occasionally the plants were systemically infected and showed a chlorotic mosaic and leaf deformation.

The major objectives of this project (DAQ0002) were to determine: the incidence and distribution of TSV in cotton and its likely effect on yield; the thrips vector species associated with TSV infections in cotton; and the factors that may lead to systemic infections.

In contrast to the extensive damage observed in sunflower and mungbean crops from the same region, TSV has caused no measurable damage in commercial cotton crops surveyed in CQ over the seasons 2008/9 to 2010/11. No TSV infected cotton was found in regions outside of CQ and the geographical distribution of TSV disease in cotton (and other susceptible hosts) appears to be closely related to the distribution of the major alternative host, parthenium weed. The most likely thrips species responsible for transmission of TSV into cotton is the tomato thrips (Frankliniella schultzei) and onion thrips (Thrips tabaci). Systemically infected plants are rarely seen in commercial crops and have also been rarely produced in controlled tests. It appears that systemic infection may be transient with only mild symptoms being produced intermittently. With current cultivars and conditions, it appears likely that TSV will continue to cause only minor levels of mild local lesions with no impact on yield in cotton crops.

It appears that no specific control strategies are required to limit the impact of TSV in cotton. However, general farm hygiene to minimise the presence of the major alternative host of TSV, parthenium weed, is advised and may be of vital importance if TSV susceptible rotational crops such as mung beans are grown.