Situated in Narrabri, the heart of cotton country is the Australian Cotton Centre. Providing the educational front-line for the cotton industry, the centre takes visitors from young children to their grandparents on an educational and fun journey through the Australian cotton industry.

Since it first opened its doors in 2002, more than 55,000 people have visited the centre to learn about this world-leading industry.

Many Australians would be surprised to know that cotton was brought out on the first fleet and has been grown here commercially since the early 1960s. Narrabri is in the centre of this successful industry, which stretches from Menindee in the South of NSW to Emerald in the Central North of Queensland.

Cotton directly employs 10,000 people in these communities and contributes to the local and national economy.

The Australian cotton industry is the most water efficient in the world and produces yields three times the world average. It is these high standards that the Australian Cotton Centre highlights in its new “Water Wise” exhibits. With the prolonged drought, and increasing community and political interest in water, the Australian Cotton Centre addressed this issue with a new two exhibit display. Water was overwhelmingly the major issue concerning visitors that came to the Centre and the interactive “Water Wise” exhibits has helped to dispel some of the myths out there about water and the cotton industry.

For example, cotton is only grown where natural rainfall in the area is greater than 600mm a year. This rainfall makes up a large part of the crop’s water requirements.

The cotton industry will also spend $17 million over the next three years on research projects to make it even more water-efficient.

The first exhibit promotes cotton industry research and explores issues such as water resources, conservation and environmental sustainability. It includes a miniature model of a river-catchment, complete with rain and running water informing visitors about water management and use at river-catchment level. The second exhibit displays an irrigated cotton field, demonstrating water use efficiency and technologies and techniques used by Australian farmers.

Most importantly, the “Water Wise” exhibits highlights the cotton industry’s water saving initiatives, and explains the way water is allocated in the Murray-Darling system. For example, the exhibits detail the water cycle and its importance to regional communities and also that water is only allocated to cotton growers after environmental flows and domestic needs are met. The exhibits through education simultaneously promote and demonstrate how we can live sustainably.

The “Water Wise” exhibits join the other 9 interative exhibits within the Centre to further enhance visitor's knowledge and values of Australia’s Coton Industry and in particular the environmental issues.

Since the first reported control failures at Emerald during the 1998-99 cotton season, insecticide resistance in cotton aphid, has emerged as a significant threat to the Australian cotton industry. Although once considered a late season pest, aphid populations now require targetted control earlier, resulting in increased aphicide sprays and consequent selection for resistance.

Previously, the cotton aphid had been readily controlled with the IPM compatible carbamate, pirimicarb. However, by 1999-2000 pirimicarb resistance was common in the southeast of Queensland and New South Wales. Pirimicarb also conferred cross-resistance to the unrelated organophosphate compounds dimethoate and omethoate rendering them useless. Efficacy of the remaining organophosphates is variable with some aphids also resistant to pyrethoids and endosulfan. These multiple resistant aphids can only be controlled by newer products such as diafenthiuron. The effects of resistance can be reduced with effective resistance management. Management in part requires an understanding of the underlying resistance mechanisms, however, this is not well understood in Australian A. gossypii populations.

Consequently, the objective of this project was to better understand the underlying resistance mechanisms used by A. gossypii. That information will then be used to develop more robust control strategies including a field based kit to detect pirimicarb resistance.

Getting Ahead and Staying There is most certainly a common goal in many aspects of life and business. For Supima it is a multifaceted challenge of building a brand identity and consumer recognition upon a top quality cotton fiber. To understand the goal for Supima it is important to understand what American Pima is, as well as address the concept of differentiation and adding value to a product through branding and how we at Supima promote and identify American Pima. There are two species of cotton grown in the U.S. The most common one is the Gossypium Hirsutum - otherwise known as Upland cotton. The other species is an extra long staple cotton called Gossypium Barbadense - otherwise known as American Pima in the United States. American Pima production represents about 3% of the entire U.S. cotton crop on an annual basis. This is similar to the percentage of ELS and LS cottons that are grown around the world relative to the entire worldwide crop

The three-gene product Bollgard 3 is expected to be available commercially in 2015. However it is of concern that a pre-emptive study of variability for susceptibility to Vip3A toxin isolated alleles conferring resistance within both H. armigera and H. punctigera. Heterozygotes for resistance in both species occur at frequencies (5% in H. armigera and 3% in H. punctigera) that are well above expected mutation rates and above the current frequencies for Cry2Ab.

The magnitude of the threat posed by Vip3A resistance to the Australian cotton industry will be determined by factors intrinsic to the resistance alleles as well as the frequency of the resistance allele. The results from this work suggest that there is one gene involved in resistance to Vip3A, has several direct impacts on the industry.

1) We have detected a single gene involved and the different resistant alleles isolated are allelic and largely recessive at the discriminating dose, the strategy of detecting these Vip3A alleles using F1 tests in the monitoring project is justified by the evidence for both species.

2) In both H. armigera and H. punctigera reproductive success is reduced when they are not under selection, this suggests that there could be a delay in the development of resistance if there are enough susceptible moths generated from refuges and non-structured refuges. This effect could be in addition to the dilution caused by mating with susceptible individuals.

3) Vip3A resistance allele frequency in H. armigera will not be affected by resistant individuals or individuals carrying a resistance allele undergoing diapause. This has particular relevance for the southern cotton region where facultative diapause is a fundamental part of the biology, particularly of H. armigera. For H. punctigera there was an increase in mortality associated with resistance to Vip3A though no other effects could be observed relative to emergence percentage (assuming successful entry into diapause), weight or sex.

4) The fact that Vip3A resistant individuals are able to survive on conventional cotton suggests that they would be able to survive in conventional cotton refuges and most likely on other potential host species. In addition both species are able to reproduce successfully after developing on cotton. There was a fitness cost identified in homozygous resistant H. armigera and while relatively small, the developmental delay observed in conventional cotton suggest that the larvae would be exposed to predation, disease or alternative control methods for longer, reducing their chances of surviving and passing on the resistance genes.

This work represents a comprehensive analysis of the fitness effects of Vip3A resistance. Possessing resistance alleles to Vip3A can have some deleterious effects but most of these were observed in homozygous resistant strains. Heterozygotes did as well or even better than the susceptible strains in direct comparisons. However, without selection, the resistant phenotype declined in a relatively small number of generations in both species. This adds to the weight of evidence that refuges and non-structured refuges will play a vital role in controlling the frequency of Vip3A alleles in the population.

The resilience of a stacked Bt technology is determined by the efficacy of each individual toxin in controlling insects. Ideally, each toxin will kill >95% of challenged insects, and when combined in a stack will add together to kill all insects except those simultaneously resistant to all toxins. Recent work on Bollgard II demonstrates that this ideal situation is not always met in practise.

The proposed Bollgard 3 technology will contain the same Cry1Ac and Cry2Ab genes that occur in Bollgard II plus Vip3A. We challenged Bt-susceptible insects of H. armigera and H. punctigera against irrigated field grown cotton containing individual toxins (Cry1Ac, Cry2Ab, Vip3A) and the stacked product (Cry1Ac + Cry2Ab + Vip3A). The proportions of susceptible insects killed throughout the season on single-toxin plants determined the likely selection for resistance to each toxin. This information on efficacy is commercial-in-confidence. It will be a key component for decision making around a Resistance Management Plan for Bollgard 3.

A study at one site in Emerald on the effects of growing cotton over a longer than normal season suggest that this practise does not substantially reduce the efficacy of Bollgard II cotton against Cry2Ab susceptible and resistant insects. In addition, data were collected over one season at one site which suggests that Bollgard II cotton that has regrown after defoliation remains efficacious against Helicoverpa species.

If Australia is to maintain its reputation as a consistent supplier of high quality cotton it will need to ensure that the entire cotton pipeline from growing to ginning conforms to industry Best Management Practices (BMP). The Australian classing sector has thus been independently assessed since 2004 by CSIRO Materials Science and Engineering (CMSE), with the cooperation of the Cotton Classers Association of Australia (CCAA). This work involved a number of initiatives; 1) conduct domestic and participate in international check tests programs, 2) expand BMP handbook for classing and conduct BMP audits, and 3) conduct formal round trials.

The reproducibility results from the local CCAA Check Test program, which determines the long term reproducibility of all HVI instruments, has been consitently improving over the last three years, with the reproducibility results for length, length uniformity, and strength consistently > 90%, with micronaire ≥ 80% and colour both Rd and +b now consistently ≥ 85%. Similarly the performance of the Australian instruments in the CSITC Round Trials has been encouraging, with the Australian instruments, with a few exceptions, generally performing better than the world average, the exception being the results for b+. These results and the results from the colour trial should give the industry confidence in the transition from the current manual and subjective classification of colour to the objective classification by HVI.

The Best Management Practice (BMP) Handbook for Classing has been extensively updated and expanded over the last three years and also linked to the BMP Handbook for Ginning. All the classing facilities that were operational over the last three years have been audited and four classing facilities are currently certified by CA. Similarly the BMP Handbook for Ginning has been extensively updated over the last 3 years and thirty two gins are currently certified by CA. The compilation of a Handbook for Harvesting with consistent, standardised guidelines will assist in ensuring that the full potential of the fibre is delivered to the gin.

Work in this area will continue over the next 3 years as the industry needs to be proactive in improving industry practices in terms of quality, consistency, specification and traceability of its own product will be reflected in increased demand and increased profitability for the grower.

Field surveys of insect populations in agroecosystems reveal low but significant levels of tolerance to Bacillus thuringiensis(Bt) toxins without mutational changes in resistance alleles. these effects seem to be seperate from target site mutations, providing protection from low to medium toxin does. We have been studying possible mechanisms that provide tolerance tolow to medium levels of Bt toxin does and their implications to overall resistance in field derived laboratory populations of cotton bollworm helicoverpa armigera. the larvae of the moths were exposed in the laboratory to low does of Cry1Ac and Cry2Ab toxins. Although the mechanism initially provide tolerance to low doses of toxins, the level of tolerance is increased by increments if the selection pressure is maintained over subsequent generations. Importantly, for cotton bollworm management, there were several novel outcomes, which may provide a basis for developing improved resistance management strategies to cope with the evolution of new threats to the use of Bt cotton.

Cotton is a relatively new irrigated crop in Southern NSW and has proven to be financially profitable. The cotton growers in Southern NSW need to know more about their soils so that they are able to refine soil-related management practices. The growers are facing a number of soil-related challenges and need improved local soils information. The irrigated cotton soils of Southern NSW are quite different from the cotton soils in the northern cotton regions. In Southern NSW the soils are highly variable and also the region has a distinctively shorter growing season which causes other management problems. Parts of the region include rice cropping or have a history of growing rice and this has unique implications on the soil for growing cotton. This scoping study was commissioned by CRDC because there was a recognised lack of understanding on the cotton growing soils and the associated soil management practices in Southern NSW. It was recognised that there was a need to identify knowledge gaps, to establish research questions that relate to the cotton soils and their management in Southern NSW and to report on the current information available on cotton soils.

The approach taken in this study involved two main components as follows: (i) surveys and interviews with growers and consultants and (ii) a desktop study of data and literature for soils and soil management practices. Initially a research focus group was formed to formally receive expert opinion on the level of understanding of irrigated soils in Southern NSW and also to identify some research priorities. Written surveys were completed by the 13 growers and 5 consultants that were interviewed one-to-one. This ensured that the study thoroughly engaged with the local cotton industry. The interviews were semi-structured as they were guided by 9 primary questions. Each interview lasted between 40-60 minutes, was recorded and transcribed. Growers and consultants were selected to cover differences in terms of experience, cotton area, soil type and location. The desktop component of the study involved reviewing and evaluating soils/ soil management practice data and information from Southern NSW and other regions where cotton is grown.

The interview responses indicated that most growers were using high levels of nitrogen in their cotton systems which appeared to be based on a risk management approach. The use of manures and stubble was fairly widespread among those interviewed, however many growers were uncertain about the nutrients supplied from manures. Issues relating to the short growing season were acknowledged by growers; with soil temperature and establishment issues at the start of the season and soil compaction concerns at harvest. The pressure and challenges associated with back-to-back cotton were frequently mentioned, although this may relate to the current water availability and cotton prices. Regardless of the reason there were several soil issues associated with crop rotation such as stubble management, cultivation and compaction which were raised as problematic. On stubble there were issues around getting sufficient breakdown before the next crop and the tie-up of nitrogen. With cultivation the challenge was related to the time pressure for activities such as pupae busting, stubble incorporation and bed formation. Compaction was mentioned as a serious issue by growers/ consultants from all districts in Southern NSW. Several scenarios were identified as high risk for compaction and some respondents provided options to avoid compaction, but there was uncertainty regarding the extent of or impacts from compaction. Comments on irrigation primarily centred around setting start date, and the decisions around irrigation interval during the season. When irrigating most growers described as though there was system (or layout) ‘lock-in’ and once they started irrigating there was very little opportunity for flexibility. Some soil issues such as acidity and salinity do not seem to be widespread, but more spatially isolated to specific cotton soils in Southern NSW. As cotton is a relatively new crop for some growers it appeared as though some respondents were learning through experience. Growers mentioned several different sources of soils information with advice from consultants and information from other growers being very important.

A review of the current soil survey data for Southern NSW was undertaken. The two main on-line databases are: eSpade/ SALIS (NSW Office of Environment and Heritage) and ASRIS (CSIRO). Areal estimates of soil order in Southern NSW showed that Vertosols are the dominant soil in the Murrumbidgee valley and cover 43% of the Lachlan valley. These are very approximate estimates because they are based on very limited soils and landscape data.

Assessment of previous cotton soils research (mostly from Northern NSW) reveals that there are opportunities to utilise results and translate them to Southern NSW. We established that there are limitations to utilising research from elsewhere; however as a guide we identified some key regional factors such as mineralogy or soil pH which strongly influence major soil processes. Likewise the same approach was applied to soil management practices. Again a series of different regional factors was found which have a large influence on the effectiveness or difficulty associated with implementing soil management practices.

The evaluation of databases and literature on soils and soil management practices also identified gaps in understanding for the cotton soils in Southern NSW. Exploration of soil survey databases indicated there are large differences in the coverage and quality of soils spatial data across Southern NSW. Major soil degradation processes including acidity, erosion, salinity and sodicity were each selected with research areas described which relate directly to the soils in this region. Soil chemical properties were examined and in many cases there is no published data available. A lack of understanding on the impact of different management practices on soil physical and hydraulic properties was evident. Quantification of soil hydrology on cotton soils and soil water properties is required. Very little information is available on the soil biological condition of the cotton soils in the region. At the farm scale there is a lot of uncertainty on issues such as compaction, stubble, tillage and crop rotations.

From this scoping study recommendations are made for future research and development activities. We suggest that a soil management practice case study is undertaken to improve understanding on the how and why growers make decisions in four areas: sowing and crop establishment, nitrogen fertilizer applications, irrigation scheduling and with picking and cultivation. We recommend that work is commenced to improve the soil spatial data for the cotton soils of Southern NSW with the highest priority on determining the extent of sodicity. A soil nutrient database is recommended as a means to increase industry confidence on the levels of critical soil test values. Such a database could enable benchmarking and also contain established crop nutrient response curves. Attention on soil physical condition is advised because of the unique soils found in the region and the uncertainty with the impacts from soil management practices. Finally, all future cotton soils research and development undertaken in Southern NSW should aim to produce soil management guidelines to identify and encourage the adoption of best practices.

The objectives of this project were to compare results from Uster Technologies IntelliGin system, an in-line leaf, colour and moisture monitor for cotton ginning, with leaf and colour grade results from the standard High Volume Instrument (HVI), also built by Uster. We studied the statistical relationships between the leaf and colour grades measured by HVI instrument with those measured by the IntelliGin system. The datasets with corresponding HVI and IntelliGin results were supplied from three gins representing three growing regions. From each region between 65 and 67 sets of HVI data, representing about 200 bales after module averaging, were gathered. While this is only a small snap shot of Australian cotton production, the dataset reflects standard leaf and colour grade values found in Australian cotton. It is noted the subsequent relationships measured would have been improved with a larger set of samples containing a wider range of USDA leaf and grade classifications.

The main findings from this study are:

• Leaf (particle) count was found to be a better regressor for leaf grade than leaf (particle) area, although the USDA classification standard stipulates that leaf area is correlated to classer grade. The implication of this is that removing leaf from cotton by mechanical actions during ginning may not be the preferred option. Leaf count may be decreased by reducing mechanical actions during processing, leading to smaller number of larger leaf particles rather than a large numbers of pepper-sized particles. It is well documented that reduced mechanical action in the gin reduces the amount of damage to cotton and is generally beneficial to cotton quality in terms of fibre length and neps. In addition, fewer larger leaf particles are easier to remove than many pepper-sized leaf particles during cotton spinning. We recommend further study on this strategy.

• All bales examined were assigned the best pigmentation grade “white”, i.e. no samples were classed as “spotted” or worse. The +b values of all bales was consistently low (very few bales had +b values above 8) in terms of yellowness. The low +b values had an adverse effect on the USDA classing grade that was applied to the cotton. This matters particularly in the movement of the grade from Middling to Strict Low Middling, which carries a large discount on the cotton. In other words, a superior attribute of these cottons was penalised according to the current colour standard designed for American Upland Cotton. We understand this issue is being looked at currently by the Cotton Classers Association of Australia. This study provides more evidence for an opportunity to market Australian cotton as being “super white (very low +b value).

• Although the overall average values of leaf and colour grades from the two systems were quite consistent the values assigned to individual bales differed widely. Overall, 57% of the bales were assigned to the same leaf grade by the HVI and the IntelliGin; 40% of the bales were assigned the same brightness grade by the two systems.

• Very large differences in average values were found in the results measured by IntelliGin and by the HVI on bales, for the additional batch of grab samples examined. These differences could be attributable to the sampling rate of the manual grab versus the IntelliGin grab and baling rate, and the compression history of the samples, as well as the instrument differences already observed in the comparison between paired HVI and IntelliGin values from the three regions. However, without more consistent data these conclusions remain speculative.

This project sought to create a forum which brings together all levels of the cotton industry

in the Macquarie Valley and from across all geographical areas of the valley, giving a

platform for an exchange of information and support s the opportunity to connect with

and create new partnerships.

Result:A large number of the 165 attendees at the Awards Dinner were young growers

who have returned to family farms in the valley. They were able to mix with older

growers and the wide range of industry, banking and advisory people who also attended.

The night was very congenial with everyone mixing well and a lot of information being

shared. The presentation of The Chesterfield Crop of the Year was detailed and

informative and encouraged growers to think about entering next year, 2014.

Funding from CRDC helped to keep the event operating at a level that makes it

prestigious and valued by our members.

Result: Feedback indicates that the prestigious standard of the Awards Dinner has

created an atmosphere of positiveness and importance,and the event is creating its' own energy.

energy.

The committee feels it is important for the cohesiveness of our cotton grower

community, to gather as many growers together as possible for this event. The

energy created by the interactions on the night creates a very positive outlook for

the coming season.

Result: The physical distance that the Macquarie Valley encompasses is very large, and

events are usually attended by those in the vicinity of the event, often leading to

workshops or field days being replicated in different towns. The Awards Dinner brings

people together from the entire valley and creates a much stronger sense of unity in the valley.