Recommendations to Australian Industry

 It is important that Australian labs are participating in future CSITC Round trials. Our results show that we are up there with the best labs. I also believe they will get better over time with CCAA’s ongoing development of BMP standards for instrument testing. Australia is the only country that compares its own results of all instruments that participate in CSITC testing which is analysed by Rene van der Sluijs and sent to each lab. It is also pleasing to note that repeatability between CCAA instruments improved for all properties in 2008 for CCAA check test program.

 While commercial tolerances for trade and arbitration have been put on hold it would be good to analyse CCAA labs to ensure we

are within the specs suggested by Axel.

 Further bales should be sent to participate in future CSITC round trials

 Instrument Colour difference between HVI 100 and HVI 900 models. This was an issue but not reported this time. I will check with Axel to see if differences are still

If Australia is to maintain its reputation as a consistent supplier of high quality cotton it will need to ensure that the entire cotton pipeline from growing to ginning and warehousing to transportation and shipping in Australia conforms to industry Best Management Practices (BMP). As part of this process, the ginning sector will need to be assessed independently via a formal audit to determine its compliance with the draft Best Management Practice for Ginning, version 3.0, handbook, compiled in February 2007 by the Australian Cotton Ginners Association of Australia (ACGA). This will allow individual gins to make operational corrections to their practice so that ultimately the industry can achieve consistent and better classing grades.

To this end the ACGA has decided to conduct audits of its member gins through CSIRO Textile and Fibre Technology (CTFT), an organisation that is considered to be independent.

Polyacrylamide, commonly known as PAM, is a long-chain hydrocarbon of high molecular weight, synthesized from natural gas for a range of industrial and environmental use. In Agriculture, PAM and other polymers have been historically used as a soil conditioner similar to gypsum and lime. The purpose of this review is to establish the extent to which PAM is useful in agricultural application, particularly within the cotton industry in Australia and identify knowledge gaps and make key recommendations for future research, development and extension.

Australian and International agricultural and environmental research reviewed in Section 1 shows that anionic PAM of high molecular weight of food grade quality is possibly the best PAM formulation for land and water application because of its high solubility and purity which is capable of providing substantial benefit at extremely low concentration. High purity of PAM ensures that it contains very little impurities (particularly acrylamide, AMD units from which PAM is synthesized) which could be toxic to aquatic organisms and human. Single dose application of anionic PAM at low concentration (in the range of 1-10 ppm) with irrigation water can cause over 50% reduction in runoff and sediment loss. Other associated benefits with this type of application include reduced transport of nutrients, pesticides, weed seeds, pathogens via runoff and sediment, with little off-site impacts. Due to the need for low application rate, PAM application is economically attractive although repeated applications are necessary to derive full, long term benefit. Despite some indication that PAM degrades over time, information on the breakdown products is limited to AMD only. There is also little knowledge available currently that demonstrates how to remove PAM once it is applied to land.

The usage of PAM is significant in the Australian cotton industry with the potential peak usage of one in five of all Australian cotton fields being treated with PAM for various reasons per season. One of the main reasons for using PAM in cotton fields is to reduce irrigation-induced erosion and increase infiltration in soils with low infiltration. However, the commercial application of PAM has produced inconsistent results affecting further use. The reasons for these inconsistent results are due to a lack of understanding of the scientific and technical requirements for successful PAM application and amelioration. For example, when PAM is applied as a liquid in the irrigation water, its benefits are highly sensitive to dosage rate, water quality and soil type. It is difficult for a cotton grower to control PAM dosage as there is a lack of adequate information on the volume of water that is being delivered to the field. The efficiency of PAM application is further affected as there is not enough information readily available on the quality of irrigation water and soil condition. It may be useful to use other strategies to manage soil erosion and/or address infiltration constraints in cotton fields, but there is no best practice yet identified for cotton to combine traditional methods with application of PAM to produce beneficial, long term results. As growers’ capability in monitoring of water application rates improve over time, some improvements in PAM application efficiency are expected. However research, extension and education about the practical application of PAM for cotton growers would be highly desirable.

Using PAM to mitigate seepage and evaporation from dams and channels is an emerging and challenging opportunity that is being currently investigated by growers, PAM suppliers and researchers. However, the scientific basis of using PAM to reduce evaporation and seepage is not known as well as for evaporation control and hence, its practical application remains difficult. A collective effort is needed to better understand this area of opportunity. Supporting research, development and extension in this area would of great strategic advantage for the cotton industry.

In 2006, Tobacco streak virus (TSV) was identified as the causal agent of the devastating sunflower necrosis disease in central Queensland (CQ), and subsequently in 2007 as the cause of major losses in mungbeans in the same area. It has been a major factor in the recent downturn in the sunflower industry in CQ. Surveys in 2007/2008 as part of a one year scoping study (project 03DAQ005) found TSV in cotton in CQ. The symptoms were mostly confined to the feeding sites of the thrips and appeared as reddish spots and rings, but only occasionally the plants were systemically infected and showed a chlorotic mosaic and leaf deformation.

The major objectives of this project (DAQ0002) were to determine: the incidence and distribution of TSV in cotton and its likely effect on yield; the thrips vector species associated with TSV infections in cotton; and the factors that may lead to systemic infections.

In contrast to the extensive damage observed in sunflower and mungbean crops from the same region, TSV has caused no measurable damage in commercial cotton crops surveyed in CQ over the seasons 2008/9 to 2010/11. No TSV infected cotton was found in regions outside of CQ and the geographical distribution of TSV disease in cotton (and other susceptible hosts) appears to be closely related to the distribution of the major alternative host, parthenium weed. The most likely thrips species responsible for transmission of TSV into cotton is the tomato thrips (Frankliniella schultzei) and onion thrips (Thrips tabaci). Systemically infected plants are rarely seen in commercial crops and have also been rarely produced in controlled tests. It appears that systemic infection may be transient with only mild symptoms being produced intermittently. With current cultivars and conditions, it appears likely that TSV will continue to cause only minor levels of mild local lesions with no impact on yield in cotton crops.

It appears that no specific control strategies are required to limit the impact of TSV in cotton. However, general farm hygiene to minimise the presence of the major alternative host of TSV, parthenium weed, is advised and may be of vital importance if TSV susceptible rotational crops such as mung beans are grown.

Attendance at the International Committee for Cotton Test Methods (ICCTM) Meeting, the 31st International Cotton Conference Bremen and visit to the USDA cotton testing laboratory in New Orleans, USA. Chair of the ITMF Testing Committee Fibre Fineness and Maturity Working Group. This meeting discussed and planned the running of the technical sessions the following day including a detailed review of two proposals to recognise new instrumentation. The meeting also discussed and developed a recommendation for a new structure to facilitate both better utilisation of the technical expertise of the available chairpersons and also to provide the flexibility to for the Committee to adapt and incorporate new issues as required.

During this pilot study 20 water quality test kits were distributed across the industry, including properties growing crops other than cotton. Key water quality parameters including turbidity, temperature, EC, pH, carbonate hardness, total hardness and nitrite, nitrate, ammonium, phosphate and chloride ion concentrations were recorded during irrigations.

Although the feedback from participants was positive, the amount of data returned was insufficient to enable the comprehensive analysis of on‐farm water quality anticipated. We conclude that reduced staffing levels, as a consequence of very limited water availability, were too restrictive to allow sufficient resources to be made available for the trial.

However, analysis of the results available indicated that at least 15 to 30 % of nitrogen was lost to the tailwater systems as nitrate. This indicates that significant economic gain can be made through improving the efficiency of nutrient use by crops. The main benefit of the water quality kits was that they provided a quantitative basis for environmental management. Site‐specific water quality measurements could be collected that were directly related to local practice. Any change in practice that affects nutrient use efficiency could be assessed, thereby informing and quantifying environmental management systems such as BMP. The economic value of any improvement in practice can be readily determined from the water quality data thereby providing further impetus for improvements.

The water quality tests, which would cost approximately $120 per year per kit, provide the cotton and irrigation industry with a simple tool to seek, measure and record economic and environmental improvement.

In Bollgard® II cotton 2-5 sprays are required to manage mirid and stinkbugs every season. An industry survey revealed that growers are 'insurance' spraying when mirid numbers are below suggested thresholds. One main reason for insurance sprays is possibly a lack of confidence in the relationship between mirid numbers and fruit loss. The development of a plant based management strategy (through detailed studies on mirid numbers, fruit loss and yield) could increase growers and consultant’s confidence in making decisions on mirid management, therefore reducing insurance sprays. The main objectives of this project was to develop a plant based management strategy for mirids and to develop selective management options for mirids and stinkbugs to fit with the existing IPM systems.

Through this project, a plant based management strategy for mirids has been developed. This strategy will consider two major factors; mirid damage rates (per cent fruit loss per mirid per week) and retention levels. The action threshold for a plant based management strategy is determined as ≥ 80% retention at up to the 14/15 node stage. Thereafter, the threshold is 60 – 70% retention. Retention levels should be determined by assessing the 1st and 2nd position bolls of all nodes up to the 14/15 node stage. Thereafter, retention levels can be assessed for the top 5 nodes. A plant based threshold should be considered in association with per cent fruit loss for each mirid. It should be considered that two per cent fruit loss per week will occur for every mirid above the base population.

When pale cotton stainer feed on young bolls (up to 15 days old), they can cause up to 40% yield loss. The germination rate of seed from damaged bolls is significantly reduced, by up to 30% compared to the control. This finding from the glasshouse trials needs further research in field conditions to confirm the result.

When salt is mixed with low rates (100 mL/ha) of Shield® (clothianidin), mortality is increased by 25% compared to the low rates of Shield® alone, which is similar to the full rates (250 mL/ha). Shield® and salt mixtures also reduced the impact on benficials significantly. However, caution needs to be exercised when using Shield® against mirids if aphids are present in the field, as aphids are capable of developing resistance against Shield®.

Cotton production is an important rural industry in Australia. Disease pressure from emerging pathogens such as Thielaviopsis basicola threatens to reduce production. Wide-spread application of Best Management Practices, a desire to have a reduced environmental impact and community demand for more sustainable produce means alternatives methods to treat disease are becoming more important. This study has investigated the use of three disease reduction strategies; soil bacteria, organic soil amendments and plant derived proteins to treat black root rot in Australian cotton.

Strategy 1: Pantoea agglommerans, Exiguobacterium acetylicum and Microbacterium sp. (PEM) have previously been shown to inhibit infection of wheat by Rhizoctonia solani AG8 in soil tests. Azospirillum brasilense has been shown to promote growth and suppress disease in a range of crops. In invitro directional growth tests, the PEM species suppress growth of T. basicola in the presence of cotton plants. Although the plant was shown to be a factor in the suppression, the effect was not due to an active host plant response and was still present when a cotton root extract was used as a fungal attractant instead of intact plants. PEM and A. brasilense were also found to reduce disease symptoms in pot trials but not in the field. Further study to determine any effect on yield is recommended.

Strategy 2: Various soil amendments have been used to suppress fungal pathogens. Three readily available soil amendments, yeast extract, zein and soy protein were tested in a pot trial to determine their ability to reduce survival of Thielaviopsis basicola spores. Disease symptoms in cotton seedlings planted in soil infested with T. basicola spores and amended with zein or soy protein three weeks prior to planting were not significantly reduced. Yeast extract reduced disease symptoms to zero when soil was sterilised prior to addition of T. basicola endoconidia and amendment, but not when live soil was used. None of these amendments are recommended for application in field trials.

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Strategy 3: Rs-AFP2 is a 5kDa defensin protein naturally found in radish seeds and shown to suppress a range of plant pathogenic fungi. Invitro testing in this study implicated that the heat stable Rs-AFP2 protein has a role in suppressing T. basicola. To confirm the role of Rs-AFP2, the gene encoding Rs-AFP2 was cloned into a commercial strain of the yeast Kluyveromyces lactis. Growth inhibitions assays confirmed that Rs-AFP2 inhibits T. basicola in-vitro, however K. lactis was determined to be an unsuitable host strain for production of this protein. Further work on this protein is recommended using either Saccharomyces cerevisae or a glucosylceramide-negative K. lactis mutant.

Keytah is an irrigated cotton and grains farming operation west of Moree in Northern NSW. The

total area of the property is 24 000 hectares of which 10 400 hectares is irrigated cotton, grown in

rotation with wheat. During a normal season only half of the irrigated area is cropped at any one

time with the other half maintained as a bare fallow. The farming system includes a summer cotton

crop, planted in October and followed by a winter wheat crop planted in May and harvested in

November. After the winter wheat crop a fallow of approximately 12 months takes place before

cotton is replanted back in October. The farming system incorporates 60” beds where cotton is

usually grown in two rows 30” apart or more recently in a single row where water supplies are

limiting. In comparison the wheat is grown in 4 rows on the same 60” beds at a spacing of 15”.

Regardless of the planting system adopted different plant lines are maintained between the summer

and winter crop options. All tractors have been extended to operate on 120” (i.e. 3 m) centres.

In a normal irrigation season Keytah relies on 7 to 7.5 ML/Ha of water for irrigation which is applied

by surface (furrow) irrigation and two lateral move irrigators. Water is sourced from the Gwydir and

Mehi Rivers and is pumped into on farm storages before being distributed to the field for irrigation.

In response to limited irrigation supplies (1 ML/Ha) in 2007 / 2008, a radical change in farming

practices is currently being pursued to establish and produce a cotton crop. Previously the variation

in soil properties across the farm has been identified via an EM survey. This survey was conducted

when the soil was relatively close to field capacity. In an attempt to identify fields which had

adequate soil moisture for planting cotton, an EM survey of the farm was again conducted to

identify areas of high soil moisture content. The EM survey identified 2 fields side by side where one

field had an estimated increase in soil moisture of 40% soil moisture. This increase in soil moisture

was attributed to no tillage over the fallow period.To assess the benefits of farming system changes in terms of energy and GHG emissions, 3 scenarios

were developed from actual crop history data and evaluated using the energy assessment software,

EnergyCalc.developed by the National Centre for

Engineering in Agriculture to assess total on farm energy use and the associated GHG emissions. The

three scenarios that were developed to assess farming practices on Keytah included:

i) a benchmark of energy use from 2000,

ii) current practices or reduced tillage and

iii) progression towards zero till farming methods

Each scenario was developed from previous farm records of field K8 (in 2000) and current crop

records of K8 and C16 (reduced tillage) and K13 and C17 (towards zero till). Farm practices were also

confirmed via an initial site visit.

The cotton industry in Australia had an early interest in pursuing improved safety and has included

presentations on cotton production health and safety at most annual cotton conferences since 1990

(Clarke and Churches, 1992b). There has been significant investment in the development of practical

resources, incentives and programs to improve health and safety on cotton farms by the industry.These

have been facilitated through the Cotton Research and Development Corporation and by governments,

specifically the NSW and Queensland workplace health and safety authorities.

There has been recent interest in identifying drivers of change to improve safety in the Australian

agricultural industries by those wishing to ensure that safety promotion and extension programs have

greater impact on achieving adoption of recognised interventions (Fragar, 2008).

At the same time there has been a growing interest by sectors in the cotton industry in examining

safety changes and specifically, the impact that introduction of genetically modified cotton may have

had on occupational health and safety in cotton production. Studies in China and South Africa have

demonstrated a reduction in pesticide poisonings with the adoption of genetically modified (Bt cotton)

(Hossain 2004; Pray 2002). While studies have examined the economic and pest control impacts of

biotechnology on cotton production in Australia, no research has been reported into the impact that

biotechnology, or other changes have had on safety in the industry in this country (Pyke, In press).

The objectives for this study were:

I. To identify and describe potential factors that have influenced the health and safety of people

associated with cotton production in Australia

2. To establish the health impact that the introduction of new agricultural chemistry technology,

integrated pest management and genetically modified cotton has had on the health and safety of

people associated with cotton production

3. On the basis of findings, to recommend a more integrated approach to health and safety risk

assessment, management and reporting for the cotton industry.