Insecticide resistance represents one of the most significant limitations to successful pest control and economic production in Australian cotton industry. This project has continued a long-term resistance monitoring program for Helicoverpa armigera and H. punctigera for three seasons from 2008 to 2011. Other aspects of the project include cross-resistance and resistance mechanism research, accumulation of dose response data for new insecticides and resistance management formulation and promotion.

Insecticide resistance monitoring was conducted in 2008/09, 2009/10 and 2010/11. The objective of the monitoring program was to detect resistance to conventional insecticidal chemistries used for control of Helicoverpa species and monitor trends and changes in resistance frequency. Conclusions from monitoring were:

*Very low resistance frequencies detected to the IPM compatible chemistries of indoxacarb, spinosad, emamectin benzoate and rynaxypyr.

* Resistance remains present but stable in field populations of H. armigera to chemistries that this species has developed resistance to in the past, including endosulfan and methomyl

* Widespread general pyrethroid resistance remains present in H. armigera populations as indicated by high resistance frequencies to fenvalerate. However resistance to bifenthrin is low and low and relatively stable.

* Very low level resistance to endosulfan, pyrethroids and abamectin in H. punctigera.

These results have direct implications for insecticide use within the cotton, grain and pulse industries. They indicate that effective control of Helicoverpa will continue to be provided by the IPM compatible insecticides utilised by these industries. Studies of cross-resistance conducted in this project demonstrate a lack of cross-resistance between these chemistries and Bt toxins which also gives confidence that efficacy will not be compromised by the high uptake of Bollgard II by the Australian cotton industry. Nevertheless, detectable resistance to these compounds, albeit at very levels, highlights the importance that insecticides continue to be used within the IRMS and that they continued to be monitored to ensure that their effectiveness is retained, particularly if their overall use increases.

The observed stabilisation of resistance to older insecticides is consistent a reduction in selection pressure associated with declines in insecticide use since the introduction of Bollgard II.

Comparison of the sequence of one esterase from pyrethroid resistant and susceptible larvae suggested a possible role in resistance for this esterase, with several point mutations between the S and R strain coding for different amino acids. Studies such as this are part of building an overall picture of resistance and the mechanisms behind it, and provide the basis for further investigation.

In addition to resistance monitoring and mechanism research for chemicals currently registered for use on cotton, it is essential that baseline responses be established for new chemistries prior to registration. Following on from similar work in establishing discriminating dose bioassays for rynaxypyr, a pilot study for determining the dose-response of a chemically similar anthranilic diamide, cyazypyr was undertaken. This enables early detection of resistance development in populations before it is evident in the field and allows appropriate management responses to be activated in order to minimise future resistance risk.The final aspect of this research is the formulation and promotion of resistance management strategies and principles. The assessment and formulation of the IRMS by TIMS has utilised resistance monitoring data which has enabled changes to be made to the IRMS at the request of the industry.

The Sicala 340BRF fibre grown commercially over the last three seasons generally produced a fibre with variable quality. The average fibre length of 1.24 inch was shorter than required and achieved a good average strength, although slightly below the minimum of 33 cN/tex, needed to attaract a genuine premium. The average Micronaire was within the required range for the production of fine count yarns in the 50-70 Ne count range. The fibre was generally immature, which is not unusual for mechanically picked defoliated cotton and coarse with the average nep content above 200 neps/gram and varied significantly, mainly due to aggressive saw ginning and immature cotton and possibly also due to differences between seasons, location and management. Roller ginning produced fibre which was 0.07 inches longer, with better length uniformity and less nep and short fibre content.

The ELS cotton produced over the last four seasons achieved good average fibre length, length uniformity and strength. The average Micronaire was within the required range, with the fibre being generally immature, fine with the average nep content above 180 neps/gram with large variations.

The fibre properties of commercially grown Sicala 340BRF is variable and does not achieve the length and strength required to be considered a genuine premium fibre. This is attruted to seasonal, management and ginning factors and may be the reason why the adoption by growers has been poor because of lack of confidence in achieving price premiums.

A commercial spinning trial was carried out in Vietnam, with Sicala 350B, showed that it is possible to produce a fine count combed yarns for knitting or weaving, in the range of 40 -70 Ne with Australian Long Staple cotton, although the quality of the yarns produced varied considerably. This was mainly due to the fact that the fibre provided for spinning did not meet the specifications for maturity which led to high nep content and short fibre content. This has once again highlighted that the quality of the fibre needs to be within the proposed specifications in order to produce acceptable 40-70 Ne yarns, without any subsequent processing performance issues in fabric formation.

This means that the Australian cotton industry still does not really know what this fibre is really capable. Further work in this area over the following year will involve conducting another commercial trial with Long Staple Upland cotton (both saw and roller ginned) which meets all the specifications required for a genuine premium fibre. It is hoped that this work will provide the Australian industry with information on the capability of the Long Staple Upland cotton which will assist in promoting the fibre to mills and encourage growers to grow this type of cotton.

The project’s research has developed a new system of soil management. Eight fruitgrowers have set up fruit trees in commercial areas using the system. The oldest are three years and their soils have developed into excellent structure, with many of the properties of the most productive soils in the world. In the meantime, The project developed management list of soil inputs needed to achieve super soil. The additional inputs, additional to the project’s last Final Report, include growing rye grass prior to the new planting, avoid any fallow (no grass), hilling to beds, build beds in stages, incorporate dry straw from the rye grass.

The key aims are the build up of soil organic matter and greatly increased biological activity. The project’s experiments have shown that by applying these practices, the soils are close to the properties of super soil – the most productive of the world’s soils. The rye grass provides the means. Rye grass roots develop rhizosheaths of soil particles, attached to each root and up to 2mm in diameter. Because of the enhanced supply of organic metabolites, soil nutrients and water, organic matter builds up in the sheath, and within the sheath the organic matter is protected from being consumed by the normal soil microbes. The rhizosheath therefore supplies the key inputs – organic matter and biological activity – required for rapid development of ideal soil structure.

The fruit industry needs to increase its productivity too equal world’s best and thus compete in the market. This applies to all Australian horticulture industries. Large potential exists: e.g. the average yield of canning pears is 40 t/ha compared with best overseas yields of 180t/ha and calculated potential of 220t/ha The major cause of low productivity is Australia’s mediocre soils. Our soils go hard in orchards. This is called coalescence and it severely restricts the growth and function of tree roots. The most productive soils overseas remain loose, soft and porous to depth. Coalescence restricts the size of the tree root system, but also very much restricts the flow of water from the soil to the root surface. The project has developed a new system of orchard soil management that overcomes coalescence.

The key properties to develop in the soils are the build up of soil organic matter and greatly increased biological activity. The project had developed a detailed list of inputs for soil preparation and subsequent management. These provide the organic matter and biological activity and the main input is to grow rye grass. The grass produces rhizosheaths of soil around each grass root and it is here that the soil changes to the properties of worlds best soils.

The purpose of the travel was to attend and present results of research into plant based measures of irrigation scheduling at the ASA/CSSA/SSSA International Annual Conference in Long Beach, California. This was meant to promote Australian cotton industry and research using an international platform. The travel was also to meet with collaborators, Drs James Mahan and Paxton Payton, at USDA, Lubbock, Texas for continued work on improving Australian irrigation strategies whilst understudying the American system.

Some of the outcomes of the travel were

a. Research result was delivered and well received by the scientific community judging by the number of visitors to the poster session and questions asked

b. Australian cotton industry and research were well promoted at an international level

c. The scientific exchange to USDA, Lubbock, Texas enabled improvement of existing synergies in our research collaborations with partners in the USA

d. Advanced exploratory data analysis, presentation and interpretations using data from irrigation experiments conducted in both the U.S. and Australia were conducted.

b) other highlights

At the conference, it was apparent that the Australian cotton industry is at the forefront of canopy temperature based furrow irrigation scheduling. Also although the USA and Australian cotton industries have similar challenges in terms of scheduling irrigation, the Australian system, requires a very different approach at fine tuning irrigation schedule.

The theme of the conference centered on organised grower groups and where they fitted in the agricultural research landscape. There were many stories on why the groups had been formed and some of these included; to drive innovation, to leverage funding, to provide social networking, to keep farms competitive and provide services that governments were failing to provide.

The conference also highlighted the changing state of Australian farmers generally. The average of a farmer is over 50 and rising, more than 70% have no formal qualifications and there are three employees per farm unit. It was highlighted that there was a need for assisting farmers with succession planning and the need to build capacity within the farming sector. This could be achieved through workshops and meetings.

Agricultural research funding was discussed. The argument of private verses public funding was centre stage. This included a discussion on both the funding and extension of rural research. With the governments trying to pull out of the public funding of R & D and extension who was going to pick up the slack? Some of the grower groups were attempting to take up this slack however group dynamics came into the fore, along with the lack of ability to source funding from the RDCs and other bodies.

The need to keep “ahead of the pack” was seen as a must for Australian farmers if they were to remain viable and profitable in the long term. It was noted that farmers had to be become 1.5% more productive every year to remain profitable and that society is past both peak oil and phosphate production. To achieve future viability there is the need to become more efficient, to ensure productivity growth and to keep using new technology as it became available. This may involve changing farming practices as smarter methods become more viable with the new technology. It was noted that new technology was expensive and that farming debt was increasing due to its use. The trend of increasing debt and declining profitability needs to be reversed if farmers are to remain viable.

The cotton industry has remained a viable industry for many years. This has been achieved through the adoption of new technology and the improvement of farming practices. This will need to continue into the future to ensure its future. Targeted research is a must to improve the returns to Australian cotton farmers. Compared with other industries, the cotton industry has mastered targeted research that has allowed the industry to remain profitable over a long period of time. The viability, profitability and future of any agricultural industry depends on the willingness of the industry to change as the operating environment changes.

This was a summer scholarship aimed at providing some experience/expertise to University of Southern Queensland student, Johanna Nielson in pathology starting with a well known pathogen.

Black root rot, a widespread disease throughout New South Wales, is a seedling disease caused by Thielaviopsis basicola. Infection of cotton seedlings by this fungal pathogen symptomized by black, discoloured roots, damages cortical tissue, resulting in slow, stunted growth. Incidence of black root rot is increasing in the Namoi valley. The growth rate and colour of isolates in culture from six major NSW cotton production regions were assessed to determine morphological or behavioural differences between regions. Seedling disease severity, and the biomass weights of infected plants were indicators of isolate pathogenicity. No significant difference was found between or within isolates from varying regions in radial growth rates, colony colour, plant biomass production, or disease severity. It is therefore unlikely that pathogenic or morphological variance is the cause of high incidences of black root rot in the Namoi valley.

The aims of this project are to:

1. Single spore the 24 Thielaviopsis basicola isolates in the long term storage culture collection

2. Assess morphology of the selected isolates

3. Test pathogenicity of selected isolates

The objective of this project is to determine whether there are morphological or pathological differences contributing to the increased severity and incidence of black root rot of cotton in the Namoi valley. Objectives are related to Farmers: 1.1 Successful crop protection, and will also expand knowledge of Thielaviopsis basicola amongst researchers and student.

There are significant resources available to cotton growers and their consultants about management options for specific weeds, efficient ways to utilise alternative control tactics such as cultivation or double knocks and impacts herbicides can have on cotton. The aim of this project was to develop a framework which ranked the various weed control tactics and their effect on glyphosate resistance development so growers have a tool to identify which are of greatest value for their individual situations.

The framework is presented as a herbicide resistance management strategy (HRMS) which incorporates individual or combinations of weed control tactics in cotton farming systems. The objective of the HRMS was that it was based on the principles underpinning sustainable integrated weed management. The draft HRMS was developed based on the 2 + 2 + 0 (2 non-glyphosate tactics in crop plus 2 non glyphosate tactics in fallow + survivor control) current best practice weed control tactics promoted in cotton.

The strategy addresses weed management in both the in crop and in summer fallow phases of the cropping system. The initial HRMS is developed on glyphosate resistance in barnyard grass in herbicide (glyphosate) tolerant cotton which was identified as the highest priority issue currently facing growers. The scenarios modelled include both irrigated and dryland cotton farming systems. The major differences between these systems are the regularity of the summer fallow phase and the extra crop competition effect provided by cotton grown in an irrigated system.

The HRMS was drafted initially by the TIMS technical panel (herbicides) and then opened for a period of consultation to industry stakeholders. Feedback from the stakeholders was addressed and incorporated into the strategy which was then ratified by TIMS. The strategy was presented at the 2014 Australian Cotton Conference.

The strategy will be communicated to industry via inclusion in the Cotton Pest Management Guide 2014, the cotton information team through the various cotton grower organisations and articles in publications including Spotlight and the Australian Cottongrower Magazine.

Resources that would aid adoption of the HRMS include articles in regional media, in field demonstration trials incorporating various weed control tactic combinations and promoting the HRMS as an Integrated Weed Management Tool

The HRMS will be reviewed by TIMS on an annual basis in a similar fashion to the insecticide resistance management strategy which has been in place for many years. It is intended that the strategy will be expanded to include more weed control tactics, modes of action and herbicide tolerant cotton varieties as they become commercially available. The HRMS is a voluntary weed management tool that provides a framework for managing the increasing problem of herbicide resistant weeds.

Precision irrigation is still in its infancy both in Australia and internationally. Despite the widespread promotion and adoption of precision agriculture in dry land cropping systems, the concept of precision irrigation or irrigation as a component of precision agricultural systems has not been widely canvassed nor its potential evaluated. This report is the outcome from a NPSI funded review of relevant irrigation research, existing technologies and the use of precision irrigation. It includes an assessment of the role of current irrigation application technologies in precision irrigation, as well as variable rate applications, adaptive control and the sensing and decision support requirements. The review also provides a framework to guide research and development of precision irrigation and its associated sensing, control, and decision support technologies.

The aim of the review was to detail the current state of the art of precision irrigation, including:

* an agreed conceptualisation and definition of precision irrigation,

* conceptualisation of how precision irrigation might be implemented for each of the current

irrigation application systems (sprinkler surface and micro), including as appropriate the

sensing, control and decision support requirements,

* identification of opportunities for and potential benefits from precision irrigation,

 identification of current research in precision irrigation and more particularly a clear

direction for future research in precision irrigation, and

* development of a series of case studies where precision irrigation is being implemented in

whole or part.

It is significant that no systems were identified in this country that could truly be classified as precision irrigation systems. However research is active in a number of areas relevant to precision irrigation and many of the component tools and technologies have been or are being developed. Examples of these are illustrated in the case studies included throughout the review and include:

* use of management zones in horticulture,

* automation of surface irrigation,

* real-time optimisation of surface irrigation,

* spatially varied applications from centre pivot and lateral move machines,

* vision sensing of crop attributes, and

* irrigation scheduling using remotely sensed crop factors.

Cotton Compass prepared a series of modules for planned cotton marketing seminars as requested by CRDC . The seminars were designed to cover off on a full range of topics, so that grower associations could have a choice of modules for delivery at each location. Unfortunately, due to various seasonal and other issues, only two of the proposed seminars were completed prior to June 30, 2012.

Promoting Water Smart Infrastructure Investment is a water and energy use efficiency project

designed to build the capacity of cotton irrigators to adapt to reduced water availability and

increasing energy costs. It has helped irrigators make informed decisions about infrastructure

change and to accelerate adoption of irrigation best practice.

Water availability is often limited for cotton production. Irrigators also face further potential

cutbacks with the implementation of the Murray Darling Basin Plan so must continue to

improve their water use efficiency (WUE).

An important outcome of this project has been to establish water use efficiency benchmarks

for the Australian Cotton Industry which enables the irrigated cotton industry to monitor and

determine the rate of change over the years. At a farm level, this allows irrigators to compare

their own performance with industry benchmarks and identify potential improvements. The

collection of high quality WUE data is also essential for sound evidence-based policy

decisions. For these reasons, the collection of robust irrigation benchmarking data for the

Australian cotton industry should continue.

The Gross Production Water Use Index (GPWUIfarm) is used to benchmark WUE. The

GPWUIfarm for the 2012/13 season was 1.12 bales/ML. This figure can be used to compare

benchmarks previously collected for the 2006-07 and 2008-09 seasons, which were 1.17 and

1.14 bales/ML, respectively. Interestingly, the seasonal conditions varied considerably for

the years the data was collected. The 2006-07 and 2008-09 had reduced plantings, low water

availability and cotton prices. In contrast 2012-13 saw record plantings and full production.

Despite this, statistical analysis found no significant difference between the three seasons

indicating that the cotton industry is achieving similar water use efficiency in years of full

production to that achieved in years of low water availability. However there was significant

variation in GPWUIfarm between individual farms, indicating scope for further efficiency

gains.

The Australian Government is providing incentive funding to modernise on-farm

infrastructure. While this provides an opportunity for Australian Irrigators, it has resulted in

the rapid expansion of overhead pressurised systems that are associated with higher energy

costs.

After years of improving water use efficiency, attention must now be placed on energy use,

and on–farm energy use efficiency. Benchmarks for energy use efficiency should be

established to complement water use efficiency, as this will maximise the efficient use of

water and energy on-farm through continuous improvement.

This project has increased the awareness of on-farm energy assessment through training and

on-farm demonstrations. While energy have not yet been established, this

project has heightened interest in this area, particularly Level 3 energy assessments (eg Pump

performance evaluation). A Pump Efficiency Monitor (PEM) was developed by the National

Centre for Engineering in Agriculture (NCEA) and has had initial trials on cotton farms. The

PEM continuously measures water flow, hydraulic head, engine and pump RPM and diesel

consumption during a pumping event. This information is used to examine pump

performance and identify areas for efficiency improvements.

Four level 2 energy assessments were conducted which showed a wide range in energy use

between the farms. The energy use varied between 6 and 12 GJ/ha, with costs ranging

between $208 and $374 per ha. Diesel energy inputs ranged from 151 to 304 L/ha. Energy

benchmarking is a critical step to improving on-farm energy use. This project has shown the need to continue working with cotton irrigators to examine on-farm energy use. High

variability in energy use between farms is evident in the assessment results, which highlights

opportunities for energy savings. Similar to WUE benchmarks, energy use efficiency

benchmarks allow irrigators to compare their own performance to regional and industry

averages and to investigate the potential for improvements. However, practical difficulties in

collecting Level 2 energy assessment data appear to be a barrier to adoption of on-farm

energy assessments. Further research could investigate improved methods for keeping onfarm

records of fuel and electricity use, or more easily accessing and collating energy use

data already available, such as that from tractor performance monitors.

Irrigation training with a focus on alternative irrigation systems was a significant output of

this project with a total of 26 training events delivered to 342 cotton irrigators, consultants,

retailers and industry personnel. Evaluation from these workshops showed participants had a

better understanding of irrigation best practice and importantly better understood the planning

and design of various irrigation systems. They were armed with greater knowledge as to

which questions to ask when considering irrigation infrastructure change.

A significant output of this project is the publication “A Review of Centre Pivot and Lateral

Move irrigation installations in the Australian Cotton Industry”. In collaboration with Qld

DERM and NCEA, this publication examines the changes in centre pivot and lateral move

installations since the previous review conducted in 2001 by Foley and Raine. It has

identified the perceived benefits and limitations associated with the use of CPLM irrigation

systems and will contribute to better informed investment decisions on the uptake of CPLM

machines.

The Promoting Water Smart Infrastructure Investment project team has been involved in a variety of field days, conferences and industry forums. Strong collaborative links have been fostered throughout this project with a range of cotton extension, development and research organisations. NSW DPI continues to build a wide network including key industry organisations and personnel with which they have a strong rapport.